Answers to FAQs

The only acceptable methods of carcass disposal in Mississippi are incineration, composting, and rendering. The most economical method of on-farm disposal for the small poultry producer is composting the carcasses. The following publications are recommended reading for producers considering this method of carcass disposal.

Broiler litter application rates on pastures of 8 tons per acre and above in a single application have been shown actually to reduce grass growth. Some producers have concerns that applying broiler litter to pastures increases weed production, incorrectly assuming that weed seeds are present in the litter. Increases in weeds in a field receiving broiler litter simply results from the greater concentration of nutrients which increases the growth rate of all plants in the soil and not just weeds.

Nitrogen in broiler litter is organically bound and is not as readily available as the N in a commercial fertilizer. This slow release of N in broiler litter can be both negative and positive. On the negative side, there is not a rapid growth spurt in forages following litter application, as with commercial fertilizer. On the positive side, annual litter applications work well because of the slow release of N that promotes season-long forage growth.

Broiler litter is frequently used as a fertilizer for winter pastures. For optimal results, apply broiler litter before planting and incorporated into the soil at a rate of about 4 tons per acre. The N in broiler litter is released slowly in the fall, and colder temperatures of fall and winter produce even slower release of the organically bound N in broiler litter.

The egg is formed in the mature hen by a reproductive system composed of an ovary and oviduct. Females of most animal species have two functional ovaries, but chickens and most other birds have only one ovary and one oviduct. The yolk is formed in the ovary of the hen while all remaining parts of the egg are formed in the oviduct. The oviduct is divided into five distinct regions: (1) infundibulum or funnel, (2) magnum, (3) isthmus, (4) uterus or shell gland, and (5) vagina.

The yolk is formed in one of many follicular sacs of the ovary by deposition of continuous layers of yolk material. Ninety-nine percent of the yolk material is formed within 7-9 days before the laying of the egg. When a yolk is mature, the follicular sac ruptures or splits along a line (stigma) having few, if any, blood vessels. If a blood vessel crosses the stigma, a small drop of blood is deposited on the yolk as it is released. This causes most blood spots in eggs. After the yolk is released from the follicle, it is kept intact by the vitelline membrane that surrounds it. The release of the yolk from the ovary is called "ovulation."

After release from the follicle, the yolk falls into the hen's abdominal cavity. The infundibulum of the oviduct quickly engulfs the yolk with its thin, funnel-like lips. The yolk then enters the magnum section of the oviduct where the dense portion of the albumen is added. The shape of the egg is largely determined in this section as it spins through the oviduct.

The magnum of the oviduct is divided from the isthmus by a narrow, translucent ring without glands. The isthmus is smaller in diameter than the magnum. It is here that two shell membranes are added. The shell membranes loosely encase the yolk and dense white until the remainder of the albumen is added in the next section.

The shell is added in the uterus or shell-gland portion of the oviduct. The shell is composed mainly of calcium carbonate and takes about 20 hours to form. If the hen lays brown eggs, the brown pigments are added to the shell during the last hours of shell formation.

The chalazae are two cord-like albumen structures that first appear in the uterus. They help keep the yolk centered in the egg during incubation and function as an axis around which the yolk can rotate and keep the germinal disc uppermost on the yolk at all times.

In the last portion of the oviduct, the vagina, a thin, protein coating called "bloom" is applied to the shell to keep harmful bacteria or dust from entering the egg shell pores. The egg passes through the oviduct small end first, but is laid large end first. In the vagina, the egg is turned horizontally just before laying. If the hen is disturbed on the nest, the egg may be prematurely laid small end first. "Oviposition" is the act of pushing the egg from the oviduct.

When an egg is laid, its contents fill the entire shell. As it cools, the egg contents contract and form an air cell between the two shell membranes. A high quality egg has a tiny air cell, indicating the egg was collected soon after being laid and was stored properly. The air cell is usually located in the large end of the egg because the shell is most porous in this area and air can enter more easily.

Hormones were tried experimentally with some types of market birds during the early 1950's but due to the lack of growth improvement, the practice was abandoned. The federal government later made it illegal to use growth or sex hormones in the production of poultry.

The bottom line is:

The poultry industry does not use hormones in poultry production, just good management and nutrition.

The diets fed to all poultry are specially formulated diets that contain many different ingredients and all the necessary nutrients in a single feed. The feeds are changed periodically depending on changes in ingredient prices and the age of the birds.

The color on the shell is added in the latter stages of egg shell formation. The pigment in the color is derived from compounds in the blood. The color of shell is no indicator of the egg quality. It only indicates differences among different breeds of chickens, just like different shades of color in the skin of different chicken breeds.

The egg laying breeds of birds have ancestries that link them to the Mediterranean Class of chickens as classified by the American Standard of Perfection. They are genetically selected for high egg productivity, and usually have small bodies that make them undesirable as meat producers. The small bodies benefit these breeds because very few nutrients are wasted for producing great body mass. Instead, they direct more of their dietary nutrients into the egg production. The egg producing breeds are further divided into birds that produce white shelled eggs or brown shelled eggs. The best white shell egg breeds are descended from the Leghorn breed with several different feather color patterns to select from. The best brown shell egg production breeds are developed from Rhode Island Red stock. Regardless of which shell color breed selected, there are many modern varieties from which to choose.

The meat-type breeds of chickens are not really breeds at all. Instead, they are hybrid varieties or combinations of many different breeds. The combinations of breeds are selected to produce a variety (strain) with meat characteristics that the producer desires most. Some breeds grow faster and larger while others emphasis traits like larger breast meat yield, more efficient feed conversion, or more disease resistance. The strains are named after the breeding companies that genetically develop them, like Arbor Acres, Ross, Peterson and Hubbard, to name a few. The weakness of these varieties is that they do not lay as many eggs per hen as the egg laying breeds discussed above. These strains are used by broiler producing companies that commercially produce broilers sold in supermarkets.

The third type of chicken breeds are those that are dual purpose. They are not as good in producing eggs as the Leghorn or Rhode Island Red breeds, but they have much better meatiness. They are also inferior in meat production characteristics as compared to the commercial meat-type hybrid varieties, but they are much better egg producers. Typical breeds in this dual purpose category are New Hampshires, Plymouth Rocks, and Wyandottes.

Vent sexing of chicks at hatching has complications that make it more difficult than sex determination of most other animals. The reason is that the sexual organs of birds are located within the body and are not easily distinguishable. The copulatory organ of chickens can be identified as male or female by shape, but there are over fifteen different different shapes to consider. Therefore, few people have experience with determining the sex of birds because of the difficult nature of the process. Most of these highly trained individuals are employed by large commercial hatcheries. The training to be a chick sexer is so difficult and lengthy that the average poultry owner finds it unjustifiable.

Feather sexing is based on feather characteristics that differ between male and female chicks. The method is easily learned by the poultryman, but the feather variations are determined by specially selected genetic traits that must be present in the chick strain. Most strains (breeds) of chickens do not have these feather sexing characteristics and feathering of both sexes appear identical.

The most convenient method of sexing chickens by the small flock owner is to care for the birds until they begin showing the natural secondary sex characteristics. In males, the combs and wattles become larger than those on females and the head is more angular and masculine looking. The female head remains smaller than the male and is more refined or feminine looking. In some varieties the feathers of each sex develop a characteristic color pattern that identifies it. These varieties of birds are similar to the feather-sex strains of chickens discussed above. Sexing based on secondary sex characteristics are best performed after chicks attain four to six weeks of age.

When the day length is increasing between December 21 and June 21, the birds are stimulated into an increased reproductive state, but between June 21 and December 21, the reverse occurs and the birds cease to produce eggs. These effects produce the natural breeding seasons for birds in a natural environment. The recommended rule of lighting for pullets and hens is: "Never increase light on growing birds but never decrease light on mature laying hens". A violation of this rule results in undesirable hens that do not lay eggs.

A good lighting program for hens requires that light be provided at:

1. The proper length of time every day,
2. A minimum intensity,
3. The proper color.

Locate the poultry house away from other farm structures and on ground that allows good water drainage. Adequate light fixtures are needed to provide at least ½ foot-candle of light intensity. Adequate light is present if the water and feed levels in the troughs are seen after allowing enough time for eye adjustment to the dim lighting. Fresh, clean water must be available at all times.

The house must also allow for plenty of ventilation and sunlight. Place one-inch, poultry wire netting over all openings to separate the hens from other birds and animals, both wild and domestic. Removable curtains or doors are recommended so the openings can be opened or closed as the weather changes. Keep the house dry and comfortable by ventilating from all sides in the summer and closing most openings in winter.

The caged layer production method consists of placing the hens in wire cages with feed and water being provided to each cage. The birds are housed at a capacity of two to three hens in each cage, which measures approximately 12^"x16^"18^". The cages are arranged in rows which are placed on leg supports or suspended from the ceiling so the floors of the cages are about 2½ to three feet above the ground. Water is supplied by individual cup waterers or a long trough outside the cages that extends the length of the row of cages. The feed trough is also located outside the cages and runs parallel to the water trough on the opposite side of each cage. The cages are designed so the eggs will roll out of the cage to a holding area by means of a slanted wire floor. This method of housing is used primarily with egg-type layers kept for infertile egg production.

The floor production method is designed for either egg-type or broiler-type birds kept for fertile or infertile eggs. In commercial flocks this method is used when fertile eggs for hatching are needed. The birds are maintained in the house on a litter covered floor, giving the term floor production.

One nest 14 inches wide, 12 inches high, and 16 inches deep is needed for each four hens. A mash hopper five feet long and accessible from both sides is adequate for 25 hens. Three 3-gallon pans provide adequate watering space for 30 hens. Clean, scrub and disinfect the house and equipment thoroughly before placing the pullets in the laying house after it has dried. Put three inches of litter material in the nests and four to six inches of litter on the floor.

Regardless of which production method is used, the 22-week old pullets should be given an increasing daily light schedule after being placed in the laying house. The length of daily light is increased 15 minutes each week after the birds enter the laying house. The increased light stimulates egg production and helps maintain production throughout the year. The day length increases continue until the birds are receiving 16-18 hours of light each day. The day length remains the same for the remainder of the laying period. After hens begin to produce eggs, the total duration of light, including both natural and artificial, is never reduced.

Feed the birds a nutritionally balanced commercial laying mash containing 16 percent protein. Use a special breeder ration if the eggs are being saved for hatching purposes. These breeder diets contain higher levels of vitamins that help produce higher hatchability and healthier chicks. Poultry older than 16-18 weeks do not require a ration containing a coccidiostat unless a coccidiosis outbreak occurs. If a commercially produced layer ration is provided, additional oyster shell, grit or grain is not needed.

Broodiness is often a problem in floor production housing. It is characterized by a hen wanting to build a permanent nest and begin "setting". The problem is solved by removing the hen from the flock and placing her in a wire-floored cage for three to four days. Ample feed and water is provided to the affected hen. The hen can then usually be returned to the flock with no further problem. The treatment is repeated if the hen continues to be broody.

Culling at night is recommended, since the birds are less likely to be frightened and reduce egg production. A flashlight with the lens covered with blue cellophane makes it easier to detect poor layers without disturbing the flock. Handle the birds as little as possible so that production is not greatly reduced. Delay culling if a significant portion of the flock is suffering or recovering from a minor disease or molt. Culling a diseased or molting flock often removes some of the better laying birds.

Early molters drop only a few feathers at a time and take as long as four to six months to complete the molt. Early molters are poor producers in a flock. Late molting hens produce eggs longer before molting and shed feathers quicker (two to three months). The advantage of late molters is that the loss and replacement of feathers takes place at the same time. This enables the hen to return to full production sooner.

The order in which birds lose their feathers is fairly definite. The feathers are lost from the head first, followed in order by those on the neck, breast, body, wings, and tail. A definite order of molting is also seen within each molting section, such as the loss of primary flight feathers before secondary flight feathers on the wings.

The primary wing feathers determine whether a hen is an early or late molter. These large, stiff flight feathers are observed on the outer wing margin it is spread. Usually 10 primary feathers on each wing are separated from the smaller secondary feathers by a short axial feather.

Molting birds lose the primary feathers in regular order, beginning with the feather nearest the axial feather and progressing to the outer wing-tip feathers. Late molting hens will lose primary feathers in groups of two or more feathers, whereas early molters lose feathers individually. Replacement feathers begin growing shortly after the old feathers are shed. Late molting birds are distinguished by groups of replacement feathers showing similar stages of growth.

1. Crowding birds - Correct by increasing the amount of space available for each bird.
2. Provide plenty of feed and water - All birds must have access to feed and water at all times.
3. Keep light intensity low - Bright lighting increases bird activity and cannibalism.
4. Keep the house temperature comfortable - Hot house temperatures aggravate birds and make them more irritable.
5. Provide all dietary nutrients at recommended levels - Deficiencies of nutrients like methionine and salt increase a craving for feathers and blood.
6. Regularly treat birds for external parasites - Pests can stimulate birds to peck and injure the skin, resulting in cannibalistic frenzies.
7. Remove all sick, weak, small, or odd colored chicks - Birds attack and kill these chicks as a survival instinct, resulting in widespread cannibalism throughout the flock.

If the pecking and cannibalism problem can not be controlled by the recommended management practices, the last resort is debeaking. Many producers commonly remove portions of both the upper and lower beaks of chicks soon after hatching. This prevents future pecking problems. The debeaking procedure is accomplished by using a hot debeaking blade that cauterizes while cutting the beak. In young chicks, the beak is so soft that touching the beak to a hot metal blade usually removes enough beak to prevent cannibalism. Mature birds may need to have their beaks "trimmed" periodically to prevent cannibalism in older flocks.

The most common reason that feathers do not develop is a deficiency of a critical protein constituent (amino acid) from the diet of the birds. The feathers of birds contain high levels of a subunit of proteins called "methionine". Methionine is one of only a few amino acids that contain sulfur, and sulfur is a major constituent of feathers. If bird diets are deficient in any single amino acid, it is probably methionine. An adequate level of methionine is required in the diet and a deficiency reduces growth and feather development. A methionine deficient bird tends to eat feathers in an attempt to satisfy a craving for this amino acid. A bird may even pull them from its own body.

Few ingredients used in making poultry diets contain adequate amounts of methionine, so manufactured methionine is added to dietary mixtures to ensure that the birds receive an adequate amount. All quality poultry feeds are designed to contain adequate methionine and prevent reduced body growth and feather development. However, if additional grains (such as corn) are fed with the complete feed, the amount of methionine consumed by the bird can be inadequate for providing growth and feather development. Feeding of additional grains with complete poultry feeds is not recommended.

Commercially raised chicks are brooded with gas brooders or space heaters. Small flocks of chicks are often brooded with electrical heaters and groups of 25 chicks or less can be brooded in large cardboard boxes with 60-100 watt electrical incandescent light bulbs.

The only time that a rooster is necessary in an egg production flock is when fertile eggs are needed for hatching into chicks. Since commercial table eggs are best marketed as infertile eggs, the roosters are not provided. In commercial egg producing flocks the roosters are considered a liability, they eat feed but produce no eggs. Fertile eggs are, therefore, more expensive to produce.

The microbe that causes blackhead (histomoniasis) is transported among birds by the egg of the cecal worm which can infect all domestic bird species. The cecal worm does not actually cause the disease but the worms eggs carry the protozoan that does cause blackhead. After the worm eggs are present in the area where you raise the birds, there is no practical method of getting rid of them.

The best way to eliminate the danger of blackhead from all birds is to remove the cecal worms from the birds by monthly worming all birds on the premises. No drugs or antibiotics are approved for sale that can effectively treat blackhead after the birds shown symptoms. Therefore, solving the blackhead problem eventually returns to regular monthly wormings of all birds on your farm.

The best solution to the problem is to prevent it before it occurs. Conduct a good mosquito control program to prevent entry of the insects and use residual insect sprays to kill mosquitoes that stay in the house. Vaccinating birds also reduces the severity of the problem. Reducing the light intensity and use of antibiotic therapy may be helpful in reducing the severity. No antibiotic therapy is effective against fowl pox but medications may be effective for treating secondary bacterial infections and soothing the injuries.

Effective treatments of the condition include weekly coating of the birds' legs with petroleum-based or mineral oils that suffocate and kill the mites. Alternative treatments include the use of approved pesticides like permethrin. All birds in the flock must be treated to reduce reinfestation from untreated birds.

The most common reason that feathers do not develop is a deficiency of a critical protein constituent (amino acid) from the diet of the birds. The feathers of birds contain high levels of a subunit of proteins called "methionine". Methionine is one of only a few amino acids that contain sulfur, and sulfur is a major constituent of feathers. If bird diets are deficient in any single amino acid, it is probably methionine. An adequate level of methionine is required in the diet and a deficiency reduces growth and feather development. A methionine deficient bird tends to eat feathers in an attempt to satisfy a craving for this amino acid. A bird may even pull them from its own body.

Few ingredients used in making poultry diets contain adequate amounts of methionine, so manufactured methionine is added to dietary mixtures to ensure that the birds receive an adequate amount. All quality poultry feeds are designed to contain adequate methionine and prevent reduced body growth and feather development. However, if additional grains (such as corn) are fed with the complete feed, the amount of methionine consumed by the bird can be inadequate for providing growth and feather development. Feeding of additional grains with complete poultry feeds is not recommended.

The disease is caused by a bacterial infection in the small intestine of the bird. Ulcers appear and reduce the amount of nutrients that the intestine can absorb. The lack of nutrients causes the extreme weight loss and muscle deterioration.

Many causes for these foot problems have been suggested and include insect stings, nutritional deficiencies, injuries and diseases. Actually, the most common cause is a combination of these factors.

The condition is usually started when mosquitoes suck blood from the birds. Mosquitoes enter the house in larger numbers in the autumn when temperatures are declining. The feet are the most exposed part of the body because mosquitoes attack from beneath the wire floor while the bird sleeps. Birds housed on dirt or litter floors do not have a high incidence of this problem.

After the bite has occurred, the foot becomes inflamed from irritation of the bite or from quail pox virus injected during blood removal. The irritation develops into a discomfort and the bird's pecking forms a scab. A reaction to the quail pox disease may also complicate the problem. It can get so severe that toes are pecked off by the bird in an attempt to soothe the irritation.

The best solution is to prevent it before it occurs. Conduct a good mosquito control program to reduce entry of the insects and use residual insect sprays to kill mosquitoes staying in the house. Vaccinating birds also reduces the severity of the problem if the virus is passed to the birds. Reducing the light intensity and use of antibiotic therapy may be helpful in reducing the severity. No antibiotic therapy is effective against quail pox but medications may be effective for treating secondary bacterial infections and soothing the injuries.

Young pullets are usually vaccinated for fowl pox at 12 weeks of age using the wing-web stab method. In areas where fowl pox has previously been a problem or where mosquitoes are frequently found near poultry flocks, the pullets may need vaccinating for fowl pox as early as one day of age. Prevent outbreaks of coccidiosis by providing growing birds with a diet containing an effective coccidiostat until they reach 14-20 weeks of age. A summary of a good disease prevention program is shown. This program is used in combination with sound sanitation practices. Both are equally important in preventing disease.

When you first open the package, carefully measure the amount of dry product (in teaspoons) using a measuring spoon commonly used for cooking measurements. After determining the exact amount of dry product in the package, divide this amount by the number of gallons of water that the package states that you must dissolve the total package into. The resulting calculation determines the amount of dry product (in teaspoon units) to place in each gallon of water.

An example is:

You measure the amount of drug in the package as being 50 teaspoons. The entire package contents is dissolved into is 100 gallons of water. If you divide 50 teaspoons (that you measure) by 100 gallons (the amount on the package label), the final result indicates that you must dissolve .5 tsp of drug in each gallon of water (1/2 tsp/gallon.

All medicated solutions must be prepared fresh daily to ensure that the drug remains effective. After measuring the correct amount of drug to place in the water, reseal the remaining drug in the original package or in a resealable plastic bag. The contents can be used on following days if stored so they stay cool and dry.

Just prior to vaccinating the birds, remove the seals and rubber stoppers from both vials and pour the liquid into the vial containing the powder. Replace the rubber stopper into the vial containing the liquid/vaccine mixture and shake the contents thoroughly. After a minute or two you can use this mixture for vaccinating the birds. The liquid that comes with the vaccine and water cannot be substituted. It is a special solution that maintains the activity of the powdered vaccine.

When the vaccine is ready, it is injected into each bird using a technique called "wing web stab". A bird is selected and the feathers removed from the underside of one wing near the elbow joint. It is through the web or flap of skin stretching across this joint that the vaccine is administered. Stretch the wing out, dip the two-pronged needle into the vaccinating solution and immediately push both needles through the skin webbing. Do not stick the needles through the muscle, only the skin. A proper dosage of vaccine is held in grooves of the needles to vaccinated the bird.

After all birds are vaccinated, all containers and vaccine contents must be incinerated. This reduces the chance of uncontrolled pox infections occurring from unused pox vaccine. The vaccine must be used within several hours after it is reconstituted. Otherwise, the success of the vaccination using old vaccine cannot be guaranteed.

The most common reason that feathers do not develop is a deficiency of a critical protein constituent (amino acid) from the diet of the birds. The feathers of birds contain high levels of a subunit of proteins called "methionine". Methionine is one of only a few amino acids that contain sulfur, and sulfur is a major constituent of feathers. If bird diets are deficient in any single amino acid, it is probably methionine. An adequate level of methionine is required in the diet and a deficiency reduces growth and feather development. A methionine deficient bird tends to eat feathers in an attempt to satisfy a craving for this amino acid. A bird may even pull them from its own body.

Few ingredients used in making poultry diets contain adequate amounts of methionine, so manufactured methionine is added to dietary mixtures to ensure that the birds receive an adequate amount. All quality poultry feeds are designed to contain adequate methionine and prevent reduced body growth and feather development. However, if additional grains (such as corn) are fed with the complete feed, the amount of methionine consumed by the bird can be inadequate for providing growth and feather development. Feeding of additional grains with complete poultry feeds is not recommended.

The quality of the shells is improved by feeding a complete laying ration as the hen's only diet. This diet supplies all nutrients in the proper proportions so the hen can produce good shells. If thin egg shells becomes a problem, it is advisable to add one pound of oyster shells (as an oyster shell flour or hen-sized oyster shells) or one pound of dicalcium phosphate to every 100 pounds of complete layer ration.

This provides a quick remedy to the problem and should restore egg shell quality within a short period of time. After the egg shell quality is restored, the addition of oyster shell can be eliminated and the complete layer diet can then maintain good egg shell formation. It is also advisable to add a vitamin supplement to the drinking water while the oyster shell is being added to the feed. This helps ensure that calcium and phosphorus in the diet are being properly absorbed through the digestive system and available for deposition as shell on the egg.

When laying hens are fed diets containing high levels of dietary energy the hens tend to deposit excess energy as fat deposits in their bodies, especially the liver. The problem is more common when feeds containing high levels of corn or other high energy ingredients is fed. Therefore, it is not advisable to feed laying hens a diet consisting of only chopped corn or adding corn to a previously prepared complete laying ration.

The condition is most often seen in birds that appear to be healthy and in a state of high egg production. Non-laying hens do not eat as much of the high-energy feed and therefore are not affected as much as higher producing hens.

The problem can be reduced by feeding only a complete layer diet that contains the proper amounts of all nutrients. Corn is an excellent ingredient for poultry diets, but is not fed as the only feed for hens. Therefore, do not feed corn as the only feed or in combination with complete feeds.

Perosis appears in only one leg of each affected chick. It is a completely different problem than when both legs are damaged, as in "spraddle legs". Spraddle leg is commonly caused by injuries that a chick receives when other chicks pile upon it or when the chick is placed on slick flooring soon after hatching.

Older chickens do not suffer from perosis because the bodies of mature birds develop the ability to manufacture or synthesize choline, but young chicks cannot make this vitamin in adequate amounts. It is important to provide starter and grower diets that contain adequate amounts of all vitamins, especially choline. Water containing vitamin supplements reduces the possibility that perosis will develop in young chicks.

Coccidiosis is hard to control by sanitation practices alone. It is best prevented by feeding a coccidiostat, which is a drug added to feeds at low levels and fed continuously to prevent coccidiosis. Feed broilers a ration containing a coccidiostat until the last week before slaughtering. Feed an unmedicated feed during this last week.

Mature chickens develop a resistance to coccidiosis if allowed to contract a mild infection of the disease as they grow. Birds raised for placement in the laying flocks are fed a coccidiostat containing feed until about 16 weeks of age. The medicated feed is then replaced with a nonmedicated feed. Spotty outbreaks of the disease can be controlled by treating in the water with an appropriate water soluble coccidiostat. Examples of coccidiostats added to the ration include monensin sodium, lasalocid, amprolium, and salinomycin.

Antibiotics may also be added to some poultry feeds. Antibiotics aid broiler performance and maintain healthy birds. They are usually added at low (prophylactic) levels to prevent minor diseases and produce faster, more efficient growth. Higher (therapeutic) levels are usually given in water or injected into the bird to treat disease outbreaks. Examples of antibiotics fed in the feed are penicillin, bacitracin, chlortetracycline, and oxytetracycline.

Follow the recommended medication withdrawal periods before eating meat or eggs from the treated birds. Follow all warning instructions listed on the feed label.

Feed chicks a "starter" diet soon after they hatch. Continue feeding the starter feed until they reach 6 or 8 weeks of age. The starter diet has the highest level of protein that a chicken receives during its lifetime. As the chick matures, it requires a lower percentage of dietary protein and a higher level of energy.

After the chicks reach 6 or 8 weeks of age, feed them a "finisher" diet (to broilers) or a "developer" diet (to pullets or cockerels saved for breeding purposes). Feed broilers a finisher diet until they reach slaughter size. Feed the pullets and cockerels a developer until they are at least 20 weeks of age. When egg production starts, feed them a "layer" ration until egg production ends.

The minimum requirements for protein, calcium, and phosphorus in poultry feeds are shown. Remember, chickens saved for egg production are fed pullet-type diets, not broiler diets. regardless of being from broiler or egg-type stock.

Most are members of the legume family of plants. One characteristic of these plants is that the fruit (beans) contain enzyme inhibitors that interfere with the digestion and utilization of nutrients in the diets. If beans are used, they must be roasted or steamed to destroy the antinutritional factors. All commercial soybean meals are processed in this way before being sold as feed ingredients. Raw soybeans must never be fed to poultry or game birds.

Nutritional research has been conducted on almost all commercially produced beans to determine whether they are useful as poultry feed ingredients. Contact the Extension Poultry Specialist to confirm whether specific species of beans can be used and under what conditions.