Answers to FAQs

After the day length reaches its maximum (June 21) the day length starts decreasing and egg laying and setting tendencies decrease until the shortest day of the year arrives (December 21). The cycle then begins all over again. In general, hens require about 15-16 hrs of continuous light daily to maintain good egg production. These seasonal factors have developed in all birds and most mammals through millions of years of natural evolution.

Hens can be be stimulated to lay or set on eggs during any season of the year if the lighting program is carefully controlled. They must be "tricked" into thinking that they are in the springtime. Place artificial lights in the house and control them with timers so that the day length is increased to about 17 hrs each and every day. Do not vary the day length or the hens will cease to lay and set on their eggs.

After the hen accumulates a nest full of eggs (a clutch), she instinctively starts setting and incubating them. The ease to which she accepts this incubation responsibility varies within and among breeds, strains, and families of chickens. Some hens have better "mothering" instincts, while others are not as inclined.

Almost all females are stirred into setting on the eggs if the day length is maintained properly and the environment around the hen is good. Provide the hen with dark, secluded areas in which to make her nest. In this way, she is not disturbed while setting on the eggs. The quality of the eggs are maintained until setting begins by replacing each day's good fertile egg with an artificial or infertile egg. When the hen begins incubating the eggs, all eggs in the nest can be replaced with the stored fertile eggs.

If the flock has many hens and only one rooster, it may require several days before mating with all hens takes is completed. It is advisable to allow at least 4-7 days before expecting a high level of fertility in eggs. If the rooster or hens are one-year or more in age, the waiting period may need to be increased.

The period of time that fertile eggs are produced without additional matings can extend to several weeks. If a rooster is removed from the flock and replaced by another, it may require three weeks before it can be assured that all eggs will produce chicks sired by the new rooster. The proportion of chicks sired by the new rooster increases during this period but some chicks sired by the old rooster may hatch. Birds like turkeys and waterfowl have longer periods during which fertile eggs can be produced without matings.

The reason that washing is harmful is that water aides bacterial penetration through the egg shell. The egg has many natural defenses to prevent bacteria from moving through the shell. Washing removes the egg shell's natural defenses against bacterial entry, and water provides an environment that allows the organisms to literally swim through the shell pores. When this occurs, the egg is overwhelmed by more bacteria than it can destroy and egg contamination results. Several washing aids and antibiotics have been tested that destroy the bacteria but have not consistently improved egg hatchability.

If dirty eggs must be used for hatching, it is recommended that they be incubated in an incubator separate from the clean eggs. This prevents contamination of clean eggs and chicks if the dirty eggs explode and during hatching.

The maximum storage period for chickens is about three weeks. Some turkey eggs will survive for four weeks, but quail will have difficulty developing from eggs stored longer than two weeks.

Collect hatching eggs soon after lay and maintain them at 50-65^oF. The eggs must not warm to above 65^oF. unless they are being prepared for immediate incubation. Maintain relative humidity in the storage facility at 70% and daily egg turning or repositioning is recommended to prevent the yolk from sticking to the inside surface of the shell.

Refer to one of the incubation related publications listed previously for a more thorough discussion on hatching egg storage.

A room or cabinet large enough to hold the eggs is required. It must be relatively air tight and equipped with a small fan to circulate the gas. Calculate the inside volume of the structure by multiplying the inside length by the width by the height.

Stack the eggs inside the room or cabinet on wire racks, in wire baskets, or on egg flats so air can circulate among the eggs. Remove eggs from the cases for good air circulation. Formaldehyde gas is produced by mixing 0.6 gram of potassium permanganate (KmnO₄) with 1.2 cc of formalin (37.5 percent formaldehyde) for each cubic foot of space in the fumigating structure. Mix the ingredients in an earthenware or enamelware container with a capacity at least 10 times the total volume of the ingredients.

Circulate the gas within the structure for 20 minutes and then expel the gas. The temperature during fumigation should be above 70^oF. Allow eggs to air out for several hours before placing them in cases.

Let's assume you are setting clean, well cared-for eggs.

The most important tools available for use in cleaning and disinfecting an incubator and hatcher are water, detergent, and elbow grease. Some people mistakenly think disinfecting agents are the answer to their problems. They think disinfectants can replace poor cleaning, but this simply is not true.

Remember this: It is almost impossible to disinfect a dirty environment. Why is this statement true? Because all disinfectants lose much of their effectiveness as soon as they come in contact with organic matter; the dirtier the surface being sanitized, the less effective the disinfectant being applied.

Some disinfectants maintain their effectiveness better in the presence of organic matter than others. Cresol, cresylic acid, and coal tar disinfectants are more effective in the presence of organic matter than many other disinfectants. Since they are corrosive and emit noxious and toxic gases, they are not normally used in incubators, but in cleaning and disinfecting bird houses and pens.

The most commonly used disinfectants in the hatchery are quaternary ammonia compounds (quats), multiple phenolics, and iodophors (iodine compounds).

Quaternary ammonia is the most commonly used disinfectant for equipment like incubators and hatching trays because quats are relatively non-irritating, non-corrosive, with low toxicity, and reasonably effective in the presence of organic matter. Since the incubator and its components must be cleaned of organic matter before applying a disinfectant, quats are a good choice.

Many hatcherymen use multiple phenolics. They have a wide germicidal range, low toxicity and corrosiveness, reasonably good effectiveness in the presence of organic matter, and good residual effect. The disadvantage is that multiple phenolics can cause burning on the skin of anyone handling them in a strong solution or during a relatively long period of time. If using multiple phenolics at concentrations greater than the solution strength suggested on the label, wear rubber gloves for protection.

Iodophores have wide germicidal activity, good effectiveness in the presence of organic matter, and cost less than quats or multiple phenolics. The disadvantages are that they stain, are corrosive when in acid solution, and have only a slight residual activity.

A thorough cleaning job using plenty of elbow grease results in a 95 to 99 percent microbial removal. In such case, and when done often enough, little or no disinfectant is needed (assuming you are setting clean eggs). If, on the other hand, you are using a quick "hit or miss" system and a long time passes between thorough cleanup jobs, you are most likely falling short in disinfecting your machines. It is best to use a disinfectant following cleanup and maybe between cleanup jobs.

The incubation temperature of naturally (nest) incubated eggs is controlled by the hen. The recommended temperature within an artificial incubator depends upon the type of incubator being used. If the incubator used has a fan for air circulation (forced air), the temperature must be adjusted to 99-100^oF.

An incubator without an air circulation system requires a higher temperature. The temperature in this "still-air" incubator is measured using a thermometer with the bulb positioned at the same level as the top of the incubating eggs. The recommended temperature in this type incubator is 102^oF.

The reason for different temperatures is that circulating air warms all points around the egg shell while still-air incubator temperatures are warmer at the top of the egg than at the bottom. Therefore, increasing the temperature at the top of the egg compensates for the egg's cooler parts. The same average egg temperature of 100^oF. is maintained (for the entire egg) if the higher temperature of 102^oF. exists at the egg's uppermost point.

Do not allow temperatures to exceed these recommendations, even for only a short period of time. Although it is not recommended, slightly lower temperatures will not kill the chick embryos but increases incubation times and produces weakened chicks. Temperatures only a degree or two above the recommended temperatures can kill chicks within 15-30 minutes, depending on how high the temperature is and the embryo's stage of development.

Poor results are most commonly produced with improper control of temperature and/or humidity. Improper control means that the temperature or humidity is too high or too low for a sufficient length of time that it interferes with the normal growth and development of the embryo. Poor results also occur from improper ventilation, egg turning and sanitation of the machines or eggs.

Obtain the best hatch by keeping the temperature at 100 degrees F. throughout the entire incubation period when using a forced-air incubator. Minor fluctuations (less than ½ degree) above or below 100 degrees are tolerated, but do not let the temperatures vary more than a total of 1 degree. Prolonged periods of high or low temperatures alter hatching success. High temperatures are especially serious. A forced-air incubator that is too warm tends to produce early hatches. One that runs consistently cooler tends to produce late hatches. In both cases the total chicks hatched is reduced.

Maintain a still-air incubator at 102 degrees F. to compensate for the temperature layering within the incubator. Obtain the proper temperature reading by elevating the bulb of the thermometer to the same height as the top of the eggs when the eggs are laying horizontal. If the eggs are positioned in a vertical position, elevate the thermometer bulb to a point about ¼- to ½-inch below the top of the egg. The temperature is measured at the level where the embryos develop (at the top of the egg). Do not allow the thermometer's bulb to touch the eggs or incubator, otherwise, incorrect readings result.

Humidity is carefully controlled to prevent unnecessary loss of egg moisture. The relative humidity in the incubator between setting and three days prior to hatching must remain at 58-60%, or 84-86 degree F., wet-bulb temperature. When hatching, the humidity is increased to 65% relative humidity or more.

Frequently there is confusion as to how the measurement of humidity is expressed. Most persons in the incubator industry refer to the level of humidity in terms of degrees F., (wet-bulb) rather than percent relative humidity. The two terms are interconvertible and actual humidity depends upon the temperature (F.) as measured with a dry-bulb thermometer. Conversion between the two humidity measurements is made using a psychrometric table.

Rarely is the humidity too high in properly ventilated still-air incubators. The water pan area should be equivalent to one-half the floor surface area or more. Increased ventilation during the last few days of incubation and hatching may necessitate the addition of another pan of water or a wet sponge. Humidity is increased by increasing the exposed water surface area.

Ventilation is very important during the incubation process. While the embryo is developing, oxygen enters the egg through the shell and carbon dioxide escapes in the same manner. As the chicks near hatch time, they require an increased supply of fresh oxygen. As embryos grow, the air vent openings are gradually opened to satisfy increased embryonic gas exchange. Take care to maintain humidity during the hatching period. Unobstructed ventilation holes, both above and below the eggs, are essential for proper air exchange.

Turn eggs at least 4-6 times daily during the incubation period. Do not turn eggs during the last three days before hatching. The embryos are moving into hatching position and need no turning. Keep the incubator closed during hatching to maintain proper temperature and humidity. Adjust the air vents to almost fully open settings during the latter stages of hatching.

The eggs are initially set in the incubator with the large end up or horizontally, with the large end slightly elevated. This enables the embryo to remain oriented in a proper position for hatching. Never set eggs with the small end upward.

In a still-air incubator, where the eggs are turned by hand, it may be helpful to place an "X" on one side of each egg and an "O" on the other side, using a pencil. This serves as an aide to determine whether all eggs are turned. When turning, be sure your hands are free of all greasy or dusty substances. Eggs soiled with oils suffer from reduced hatchability. Take extra precautions when turning eggs during the first week of incubation. The developing embryos have delicate blood vessels that rupture easily when severely jarred or shaken, thus killing the embryo.

The following table lists incubation requirements for various species of fowl.

The two most common causes for chicks dying after pipping are:

1. Low Humidity and
2. Inadequate Ventilation

A still-air incubator (one with a single layer of eggs) does not usually have ventilation problems unless the air inlet holes (both bottom and top) are restricted. Always keep these ventilation holes open and clear of obstructions. The usual settings for forced-air incubators is to leave one-half of all openings unobstructed. Restricting the ventilation openings too much (to increase humidity) increases the chance that the chicks will suffocate before they hatch.

Regardless of which type of incubator is used, low humidity during hatching is a constant danger. Never open the incubator after the first chick pips the shell. Otherwise, all pipped but unhatched eggs are in danger of not hatching. The egg membranes dry out and may not allow the chick to turn and complete the hatching process.

The best method to increase and maintain a higher humidity level is to place a small air vaporizer (humidifier) in the room containing the incubator. This increases the humidity of incoming air. Adding more water pan area in the incubator or placing a moistened sponge in the water pan increases humidity by increasing the pan's water surface area. Water droplets should form on the top of the incubator or on the observation window during the hatching phase. This improves the hatching rate.

Refer to the publications "Hatching Quality Chicks" and "Hatchery Management" at the poultry web site.

The air exchange requirement within an incubator is greatest during the last day of incubation. The chick embryo's oxygen requirement continually increases during development and especially when breathing with their respiratory system just before hatching. The vent openings are frequently restricted at this time in an attempt to boost incubator humidity. Instead of helping the chick hatch, the chick is suffocated from lack of ventilation. Never decrease ventilation openings at hatching in an attempt to increase humidity. Increase humidity by other methods. If any vent adjustments are made, they should be opened more.

Another reason for mortality during hatching is improper humidity adjustment. The deaths are often produced from too much humidity during the entire incubation period or from too little humidity during the hatching period.

The desired egg weight loss during incubation caused by water evaporation is about 12%. If humidity during incubation is kept too high, adequate water evaporation from the egg is prevented. The chick can drown in the water remaining in the shell at hatching. A dried coating around the chick's nostrils and beak indicates that drowning was likely. Attention to maintaining proper incubation humidity during incubation reduces the potential for this problem at hatching time.

If the humidity is allowed to decrease after the chick pips the shell, the membranes within the shell dry-out and stick to the chick. This prevents the chick from turning inside the shell and stops the hatching process. The chick eventually dies. If the membranes around the shell opening appear dried and shrunken, the cause is probably low humidity during hatching. This condition occurs quickly (within one or two minutes) when the incubator is opened to remove or assist other chicks that are hatching. When hatching begins and proper incubator conditions are attained, the incubator should never be opened until after all chicks are hatched and ready for placement in the brooder.

The earliest elapsed time before removal is usually about one hour. The ideal chick must be able to walk well and has dried, fluffy down. If the chick is still wet, it should stay in the hatcher, even if all other chicks are ready for removal. A wet chick becomes quickly chilled and often dies soon after removal.

If all eggs do not hatch within 24 hours after the first hatchling emerges, open the hatching unit and remove all dry chicks. Leave wet chicks until they are dry and strong. It is best to remove chicks at 18 to 24 hours intervals after the first chick hatches. If chicks are still hatching when the hatcher is opened, it is important to quickly remove dry chicks and close the hatcher before the humidity drops too low.

The primary reason for not allowing the chicks to stay in the hatcher for longer periods is excess dehydration of the chicks. The chicks have enough food reserves to provide their bodies with nourishment for three days. However, they do not have additional moisture reserves and can become dehydrated if left in the hatcher too long. A dehydrated chick is identified by looking at the scaly portion of the legs (shanks). If the shanks are smooth and rounded, the chick is normal and does not immediately need water. If the shanks are angular and show sharp angles on the front and backs, they are dehydrated and in a stage of stress. Be sure that plenty of cool, fresh drinking water is available in the brooding area.

When the egg is laid, some embryonic development has occurred and usually stops until proper cell environmental conditions are reestablished for incubation to resume. At first, all the cells are alike, but as the embryo develops, cell differences are observed. Some cells may become vital organs; others become a wing or leg.

Soon after incubation begins, a pointed thickened layer of cells becomes visible in the caudal or tail end of the embryo. This pointed area is the primitive streak, and is the longitudinal axis of the embryo. From the primitive streak, the head and backbone of the embryo develop. A precursor of the digestive tract forms; blood islands appear and later develop into the vascular or blood system; and the eye begins.

On the second day of incubation, the blood islands begin linking and form a vascular system, while the heart is being formed elsewhere. By the 44^th hour of incubation, the heart and vascular systems join, and the heart begins beating. Two distinct circulatory systems are established, an embryonic system for the embryo and a vitelline system that extends into the egg.

At the end of the third day of incubation, the beak begins developing and limb buds for the wings and legs are seen. Torsion and flexing continue through the fourth day. The chick's entire body turns 90^o and lies down with its left side on the yolk. The head and tail come close together so the embryo forms a "C" shape. The mouth, tongue, and nasal pits develop into parts of the digestive and respiratory systems. The heart continues to enlarge even though it has not been enclosed within the body. It is seen beating if the egg is opened carefully. The other internal organs continue to develop. By the end of the fourth day of incubation, the embryo has all organs needed to sustain life after hatching, and most of the embryo's parts can be identified. The chick embryo cannot, however, be distinguished from that of mammals.

The embryo grows and develops rapidly. By the seventh day, digits appear on the wings and feet, the heart is completely enclosed in the thoracic cavity, and the embryo looks more like a bird. After the tenth day of incubation, feathers and feather tracts are visible, and the beak hardens. On the fourteenth day, the claws are forming and the embryo is moving into position for hatching. After twenty days, the chick is in the hatching position, the beak pierces the air cell, and pulmonary respiration is begun.

After 21 days of incubation, the chick finally begins its escape from the shell. The chick begins by pushing its beak through the air cell. The allantois, which has served as lungs, begins to dry up as the chick uses its own lungs. The chick continues to push its head outward. The sharp horny structure on the upper beak (egg tooth) and the muscle on the back of the neck are used to cut the shell and membranes. The chick rests, changes position, and keeps cutting until its head falls free of the opened shell. It then kicks free of the bottom portion of the shell. The chick is exhausted and rests while the navel openings heal and its down dries. Gradually, it regains strength and walks. The incubation and hatching is complete. The horny cap falls off the beak within days after the chick hatches.

Before Egg Laying:

Fertilization

Division and growth of living cells

Segregation of cells into groups of special function (tissues)

Between Laying and Incubation

No growth; stage of inactive embryonic life

During Incubation:

First day

16 hours - first sign of resemblance to a chick embryo

18 hours - appearance of alimentary tract

20 hours - appearance of vertebral column

21 hours - beginning of nervous system

22 hours - beginning of head

24 hours - beginning of eye

Second day

25 hours - beginning of heart

35 hours - beginning of ear

42 hours - heart beats

Third day

60 hours - beginning of nose

62 hours - beginning of legs

64 hours - beginning of wings

Fourth day - beginning of tongue

Fifth day - formation of reproductive organs and differentiation of sex

Sixth day - beginning of beak

Eighth day - beginning of feathers

Tenth day - beginning of hardening of beak

Thirteenth day - appearance of scales and claws

Fourteenth day - embryo gets into position suitable for breaking shell

Sixteenth day - scales, claws and beak becoming firm and horny

Seventeenth day - beak turns toward air cell

Nineteenth day - yolk sac begins to enter body cavity

Twentieth day - yolk sac completely drawn into body cavity; embryo occupies practically all the space within the egg except the air cell

Twenty-first day - hatching of chick

The eggs are normally tested after four to seven days of incubation. Eggs with white shells are easier to test and can be tested earlier than dark shelled eggs. Two classes of eggs are removed on the basis of this early test, "infertiles" and "dead germs." "Infertile" refers to an unfertilized egg or an egg that started developing but died before growth could be detected. "Dead germs" refers to embryos that died after growing large enough to be seen when candled.

If you are not sure whether the embryo is alive, place the egg back in the incubator and retest later. A second test can be made after 14 to 16 days of incubation. If the embryo is living, only one or two small light spaces filled with blood vessels can be seen, and the chick may be observed moving.

The egg is formed in the mature hen by a reproductive system composed of an ovary and oviduct. Most female animals have two functional ovaries, but chickens and most other birds have only one ovary and one oviduct. In this oviduct, all parts of the egg, except the yolk, are formed. It is divided into five distinct regions: (1) infundibulum or funnel, (2) magnum, (3) isthmus, (4) uterus or shell gland, and (5) vagina.

The yolk is formed in the follicular sac by the deposition of continuous layers of yolk material. Ninety-nine percent of the yolk material is formed within the 7-9 days before the laying of the egg. When the yolk matures, the follicular sac ruptures or splits along a line with few, of any, blood vessels (stigma). If any blood vessels cross the stigma, a small drop of blood is deposited on the yolk as it is released from the follicle. This causes most blood spots in eggs. After the yolk is released from the follicle, it is kept intact by the vitelline membrane surrounding it. The release of the yolk from the ovary is called "ovulation."

After its release from the follicle, the yolk falls into the hen's abdominal cavity. The infundibulum of the oviduct quickly engulfs the yolk with its thin, funnel-like lips. The yolk quickly enters the magnum section of the oviduct where the dense portion of the albumen is added. The shape of the egg is largely determined in this section.

The magnum of the oviduct is divided from the isthmus by a narrow, translucent ring without glands. The isthmus is smaller in diameter than the magnum. It is here that the two shell membranes are formed. The shell membranes loosely envelop the yolk and dense white until the rest of the albumen is added in the uterus.

The shell is added in the uterus or shell gland portion of the oviduct. The shell is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. It takes about 20 hours for the egg shell to form. If the hen lays brown eggs, the brown pigments are added to the shell in the last hours of shell formation.

The chalazae, two cord-like structures that keep the yolk centered in the egg, first appear in the uterus. The chalazae also function as an axis around which the yolk can rotate and keep the germinal disc in hatching eggs uppermost at all times.

In the last portion of the oviduct, the vagina, a thin, protein coating called "bloom" is applied to the shell to keep harmful bacteria or dust from entering the egg shell pores. The egg passes through the oviduct small end first, but is laid large end first. In the vagina, the egg is turned horizontally just before laying. If the hen is disturbed on the nest, the egg may be prematurely laid small end first. "Oviposition" is the act of pushing the egg from the oviduct.

When an egg is laid, it fills the shell. As it cools, the interior portion of the egg contracts and forms an air cell between the two shell membranes. A high quality egg has a tiny air cell, indicating the egg was collected soon after being laid and was stored properly. The air cell is usually located in the large end of the egg where the shell is most porous and air can enter easily.

One incubator is constructed from a styrofoam ice chest. It is inexpensive, and because it is insulated, is inexpensive to operate. It can be damaged easily. The eggs and chicks can be observed through a window in the lid. This incubator holds about 40-45 eggs.

The second incubator is more expensive, but is more permanent. It is constructed of plywood and glass, and accommodates up to 100 large eggs. Both incubators are heated by a commercially available heating cable. The heating cable can be replaced with two or three ordinary light bulbs. Get a list of organizations that sell incubator supplies and equipment from your county agent or state poultryman.

Styrofoam Incubator

You'll need the following equipment and supplies to construct this incubator.

Styrofoam ice chest (12-16" x 20-24" x 12"-15")

Heating cable

Micro-switch assembly (thermostat)

Glass (approx. 10"x14")

¼" welded wire - hardware cloth (24"x36")

Cake pan (9"x14"x1½")

Thermometer

Masking tape

The disease is caused by a bacterial infection in the small intestine of the bird. Ulcers appear and reduce the amount of nutrients that the intestine can absorb. The lack of nutrients causes the extreme weight loss and muscle deterioration.

Many causes of these foot problems have been suggested and include insect stings, nutritional deficiencies, injuries and diseases. Actually, the most common cause is a combination of these factors.

The condition is usually started from the bites of mosquitoes while they suck blood from the birds. Mosquitoes enter the house in larger numbers in the autumn when temperatures begin to fall. The feet are the most exposed part of the body because the mosquitoes can attack from beneath the wire floor as the bird sleeps. Birds housed on dirt or litter floors do not have a high incidence of this problem.

After the bite has occurred, the foot becomes inflamed from irritation of the bite or from quail pox virus that is injected by the mosquito. The irritation becomes a discomfort that the bird pecks at and the foot forms a scab from the constant pecking. A reaction to the quail pox disease also complicates the problem. It can get so severe that toes are often pecked off by the bird itself in an attempt to soothe the irritation.

The best solution to the problem is to prevent it before it occurs. Conduct a good mosquito control program to prevent entry of the insects and use residual insect sprays to kill mosquitoes that stay in the house. Vaccinating birds also reduces the severity of the problem if the virus is passed to the birds. Reducing the light intensity and use of antibiotic therapy may be helpful in reducing the severity. No antibiotic therapy is effective against quail pox but medications may be effective for treating secondary bacterial infections and soothing the injuries.

An adequate level of methionine must be provided or reduced growth and feather development results. A methionine deficient bird tends to eat feathers in an attempt to satisfy its craving for this amino acid. A bird may even pull them from its own body. The problem can not be treated by merely increasing the protein level of the diet. Methionine deficiencies can result with high protein diets if a poor quality protein ingredient is used.

Few ingredients used in making poultry diets contain adequate amounts of methionine. Manufactured methionine must be added to a mixture of ingredients to ensure that the birds receive an adequate supply. All quality feeds are designed to contain adequate methionine. However, if additional grains (such as corn) are fed with the complete feed or mistakes are made in diet preparation, then the amount of methionine provided to the bird can be inadequate for its needs.

If feathering of game birds becomes a problem, add extra methionine to the feed or water. Addition of 1-2 lb of additional dl-methionine into each ton of gamebird feed will often produce a marked improvement in plumage within two to three weeks. The same additive can be given to the birds in the drinking water.

After the chicks reach six or eight weeks of age, feed them either a "finisher" diet (meat-type birds) or a "developer" diet (flight birds or those saved for egg production). Feed meat birds a finisher diet until they reach slaughter size. Feed the flight birds and immature breeders the developer diet until they are sold or about twenty weeks of age. A few weeks prior to expected egg production, the breeders are fed a "layer" diet until they complete their egg production period.

An alternate species of game birds often produced are the coturnix or pharaoh quail. They are grown for both meat and egg production but seldom for flight or hunting. They mature at an earlier age than bobwhite quail and may begin laying eggs as young as six to eight weeks of age. As with bobwhite quail, coturnix grown for meat are provided starter and finisher diets, whereas laying/breeder birds are fed starter and breeder diets.

Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease of the digestive tract. It is difficult to control by sanitation practices alone. The best prevention is to include a drug or coccidiostat in the feed. This coccidiostat is added to the feed at low levels and fed continuously. Some coccidiostats are given at higher levels to treat the disease after the birds show symptoms. Before increasing the drug level, check with someone who is familiar with the proper use of the coccidiostat in question since some coccidiostats can be toxic at higher levels.

Feed growing birds a ration containing a coccidiostat from hatch until the last week before slaughter. Feed an unmedicated diet during this last week to assure that no drug residues remain in the tissues of the birds. This feeding of unmedicated diets prior to slaughter is recommended when using any dietary drug, regardless of whether the restriction is required or not.

As birds mature, they develop a resistance to coccidiosis if a controlled exposure to the parasite is allowed. Birds grown for breeder replacements are fed a coccidiostat until about 16 weeks of age. The medicated feed is then replaced with a feed not containing a coccidiostat. Spotty outbreaks of the disease can be controlled by including drugs in the water. Two coccidiostats with Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for use in game bird feeds are monensin sodium (Coban) and amprolium.

Antibiotics are also be added to some feeds. Antibiotics aid performance and maintain healthy birds. They are added at low (prophylactic) levels to prevent minor diseases and produce faster, more efficient growth. Higher (therapeutic) levels are usually given in water or injected into the bird. Examples of FDA approved antibiotics in game bird diets are bacitracin and penicillin.

Addition of bacitracin to game bird diets is recommended at the rate of 50 grams per ton as a preventative of ulcerative enteritis (quail disease). Higher levels in the diet is not recommended nor permitted by FDA. If higher levels are needed for treatment, it is best to give the antibiotic in the birds' drinking water. This practice is also more effective since sick birds will usually drink water but do not always consume feed. Including bacitracin in diets of all game birds is recommended to maintain healthy, productive birds.

When using any drug, whether the drug is or is not mixed with the feed, all warnings and instructions on the label must be carefully followed. Always comply with all instructions that require a medication withdrawal period prior to bird slaughter or saving eggs for human consumption.

Meat-type bobwhite quail do not require as much floor area as other types of quail even though they are, as a rule, larger birds. The restriction of space may be as asset in some cases because increased movement and exercise are detrimental to rapid weight gains. Excess floor space encourages increased movement and exercise. The only disadvantage is the increased potential for cannibalism and pecking. Dietary changes, decreased lighting, and debeaking help reduce the cannibalism danger.

Meat-type bobwhite quail do not require extra floor space because the quality of feathers is not a high priority concern. When starting day-old chicks, allow about .1 square foot of floor space for every ten chicks through the first two weeks. During the 4-6 week period the birds need at least .25 square foot per bird and at 6-12 weeks of age the birds need at least .75 square foot per bird.

Flight birds are provided at least .1 square foot per bird during the first 2 weeks. Provide .25 square foot for each 4-6 week old bird. When birds are placed in flight pens, each bird must be allowed at least 2 square feet until its release on a shooting preserve. The extra space allows bird to develop good plumage.

Bobwhite quail intended as breeders are brooded through 12 weeks of age at the same space allotments as meat-type birds. They are provided a minimum of .1 square foot per bird during the period between 12 weeks and their placement in the breeder pens. Bobwhite quail breeding pens should provide at least 2 square feet for each breeder bird, regardless of sex or bird type.

The floor space allocations stated above are for game birds produced during the moderate or cool seasons of the year and no unusual disease factors are present. If the temperatures frequently exceed 90 degrees F., increase the space allotments by 25 percent. This increase helps reduce cannibalism and heat stress in the flock. If cannibalism becomes a problem, debeaking and increasing the floor space allowance greatly helps correct the vice.

Under this brooding schedule, the brooding temperature is reduced 5 °F each week. At 5 weeks of age, chicks maintain their own body temperatures if the room temperature is kept near 70 degrees.

Use lower brooding temperatures during warm months. Most poultry houses are not tight enough to maintain these temperatures constantly in winter. Insure adequate warmth in winter by using the higher brooding temperature; when cold nights cool the house, chicks are likely to have enough warmth.

In contrast to what many think, the most frequent error observed when brooding in the South is overheating rather than too little heat. Many producers need to learn proper brooding to reduce losses.

Check the comfort of the chicks several times each day, especially in the evening. Make adjustments to maintain chick comfort. Contented peeping and even distribution of chicks around and under the brooder indicate comfortable conditions. If the chicks chirp and huddle to one side of the brooder, there is a draft. When the temperature is too cold, the chicks chirp sharply and huddle together under the brooder. If the chicks move away from the brooder, pant, and are drowsy, the temperature is too warm.

Under this brooding schedule, the brooding temperature is reduced 5 °F each week. At 5 weeks of age, chicks maintain their own body temperatures if the room temperature is kept near 70 degrees.

Use lower brooding temperatures during warm months. Most poultry houses are not tight enough to maintain these temperatures constantly in winter. Insure adequate warmth in winter by using the higher brooding temperature; when cold nights cool the house, chicks are likely to have enough warmth.

In contrast to what many think, the most frequent error observed when brooding in the South is overheating rather than too little heat. Many producers need to learn proper brooding to reduce losses.

Check the comfort of the chicks several times each day, especially in the evening. Make adjustments to maintain chick comfort. Contented peeping and even distribution of chicks around and under the brooder indicate comfortable conditions. If the chicks chirp and huddle to one side of the brooder, there is a draft. When the temperature is too cold, the chicks chirp sharply and huddle together under the brooder. If the chicks move away from the brooder, pant, and are drowsy, the temperature is too warm.

Eating young often occurs when varmints, household pets, rodents, or some other unusual visitor enters the rabbitry soon after the doe has delivered her young. The eating of young is an instinctive survival response of the doe. Restrict all animals and visitors from entering or roaming near the rabbitry. The problems often occur at night when rodents and varmints are more active.

Other concerns include a check of the water supply system to assure that adequate amounts of fresh, cool water are available and use vitamin/electrolyte supplements in the drinking water during hot periods. Adding electrolytes (salts) increases water consumption. If water is not flushed frequently from overhead water pipes during hot weather, the water may become too hot for drinking. The does may not drink enough water and cannibalism can result. All hot water in these pipes should be flushed at mid-afternoon.