Poultry Science Department, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762

ABSTRACT
Chicken hot-drumettes containing 2% cayenne pepper were prepared using three different cooking methods and stored under two different temperatures for "hotness" evaluation. Results demonstrated that the hotness of the samples were highest when products were cooked in a microwave oven, followed by convection oven, and least hot by deep-fat frying. Regardless of the cooking method, the degree of hotness of the hot-drumette decreased drastically during refrigerated storage. Results also indicated that the loss of hotness was associated with the increase of 2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values in the product. The addition of antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), rosemary, and sodium nitrate during preparation or vacuum packaging retarded lipid oxidation of chicken hot drumettes and retarded the loss of hotness of the products during refrigerated storage.

Key words: Hotness, Pepper, Chicken hot-wing, 2-thiobarbituric acid, Storage

Poultry Science, 1998. 77:627-631

Poultry Science Department, College of Agriculture, P.O. Box 5188, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762

ABSTRACT
Chicken carcasses from 7-wk-old birds were skinned, deboned by hand, and the meat ground twice through a meat grinder. Samples were divided into 90-g portions, packaged, and stored at 3C. The pH, cooking yield, and color of raw and cooked ground chicken meat were determined at 4-day intervals during 28 days of storage. In addition, ground meat samples were brought to pH values ranging from 4.9 to 7.1 by treating with citric acid or Na₃PO₄. Chicken fillets were marinated in suspensions that contained citric acid and Na₃PO₄ for color evaluation. Increased refrigerated storage time increased (P<.05) the pH of ground chicken meat. As ground meat pH increased, Hunter Lab "L" and "a" values decreased (P <.05). After samples were cooked, both internal and external Hunter Lab "L" and "b" values decreased (P<.05) and "a" increased (P<.05) as storage time progressed. Results indicated that raw and cooked chicken meat color were related to pH values and the color of raw and cooked chicken fillets can be altered with marinades containing citric acid and Na₃PO₄.

Key words: pH, citric acid, meat color, marinade, storage

Poultry Science, 1993. 72:355-362

Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

ABSTRACT
Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, aspirin) is an inhibitor of prostaglandin (PG) synthesis and an antipyretic drug. Because PG maybe involved in the premature oviposition of some soft-shelled (SS) and shell-less (SL) eggs, the objective of the present study was to determine whether dietary ASA, as an inhibitor of PG synthesis, would convert SS and SL eggs to hard-shelled (HS) eggs, thus increasing total salable egg output and improving feed efficiency.

White Leghorn layer breeders were fed 0, .025, .05, .10, .20, and .40% ASA for the first 13 mo of egg production. When averaged over 13 mo, hens fed .40% dietary ASA laid fewer HS eggs (P<.002), had poorer feed efficiency (P<.03), had increased mortality (P<.0001), and laid smaller eggs (P<.01). All levels of dietary ASA resulted in significant decreases in specific gravity (P<.0001), shell thickness (P<.0001), shell weight (P<.0001), and percentage shell (P<.0001).

During Month 1 of production, mortality was greatly increased for hens fed .20 and .40% ASA as compared with hens receiving 0.025, .05, or .10% ASA (diet by month interaction, P<.0001). However, during the other 12 mo of production, only hens receiving .40% dietary ASA experienced a slight increase in mortality. Also during Month 1 of production, hens fed .20% ASA laid fewer SL eggs, whereas hens fed .05 and .40% ASA laid more SL eggs than birds receiving the control diet (diet by month interaction, P<.0007).

In conclusion, chronic feeding of ASA did not improve egg production or feed efficiency. In addition, long-term feeding of ASA to layer breeders proved to be detrimental with respect to early hen livability and eggshell quality.

Key words: Acetylsalicylic acid, Aspirin, Shell quality, Prostaglandins, Layer breeders

1993 Poultry Science 72:1084-1092

Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

ABSTRACT
White Leghorn breeder hens were fed 0, .05, or .40% acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) for either 1 wk or 1 mo. Blood samples were collected 4 h postentrance of an egg into the uterus (baseline) and at oviposition of a hard-shelled (HS) egg. Plasma samples were analyzed for prostaglandin (PG) F_2a by radioimmunoassay. Peripheral PGF_2a concentrations peaked upon oviposition of a HS egg in both ASA-fed hens as well as the controls (0% ASA). The levels of dietary ASA and the duration of time the ASA was administered did not affect baseline or peak PGF_2a concentrations. It was concluded that either the timing or route of administration of ASA resulted in the failure of ASA to effectively reduce peak peripheral PGF_2a concentrations.

Key words: Acetylsalicylic acid, Aspirin, Prostaglandins, Layer breeders, Eggs

1993 Poultry Science 72:1093-1099

Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

ABSTRACT
Because acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, aspirin) is a common antipyretic drug, there has been considerable research on the effects of ASA on mammalian embryonic development. However, very limited research has been conducted on the effects of ASA on avian development and hatchability. The present study investigated the effect of dietary ASA on fertility and hatchability and whether embryos of breeder hens fed ASA, as compared with embryos of hens fed a control diet, would survive elevated temperatures during incubation.

White Leghorn layer breeders were fed 0, .025, .050, .100, .200, and .400% ASA for the first 13 mo of egg production. When averaged over 13 mo, hens fed .40% dietary ASA demonstrated a decline in fertility (P<.03), hatchability of fertile eggs (P<.04), and hatchability of eggs set (P<.02). Chicks from hens fed .10% ASA weighed more than chicks from hens receiving 0, .025, .20, or .40% ASA (P<.01).

When embryos were incubated at elevated temperatures of 42.8 or 43.3 C for 5.5 to 12 h on Day 16 of incubation, hatchability declined. Also, ASA fed to layer breeders did not improve hatchability of embryos exposed to elevated incubation temperatures when compared with embryos exposed to a control incubation temperature (37.2 C). During Month 9 of production, chicks from hens fed .05 and .10% ASA and exposed to an elevated temperature of 42.8 C for 9 h on Day 16 of incubation weighed more than similarly heat-stressed chicks of hens fed 0, .20, or .40% ASA (temperature by diet interaction, P<.03). Among diets, there were no differences in chick weight at hatching when eggs were incubated under control conditions during Month 9.

Key words: Hatchability, Fertility, Acetylsalicylic add, Aspirin, Hyperthermia

1993 Poultry Science 72:1100-1108

Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

ABSTRACT
Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), the active ingredient of aspirin, has been evaluated as a potential feed ingredient in laying hen rations because of its antipyretic and antiprostaglandin properties. Therefore, the present study was designed to determine whether dietary ASA or its metabolites are transferred to the egg.

A single oral dose of ¹⁴C-carboxyl-labeled ASA administered to White Leghorn hens resulted in eggs containing approximately .02% of the administered dose. More ¹⁴C-label was found in the first egg laid than in subsequent eggs laid, and more ¹⁴C-label was detected in the albumen than in the yolk when eggs were analyzed on an entire egg component basis. The distribution of the ¹⁴C-label changed markedly with each egg laid, as 96.5, 33.5, and 12.0% of the radioactivity was present in the albumen in the first three eggs laid following dosing. Conversely, 3.5, 66.5, and 88.0% of the egg radioactivity was present in the yolk of the first three eggs laid postdosing. White Leghorn breeder hens fed .100, .200, and .400% ASA for an entire (13 mo) production cycle laid eggs containing measurable amounts of salicylic acid (SA, the major metabolite of ASA) in the albumen and yolk, with no detectable levels found in eggs of hens fed 0, .025, and .050% ASA. Again, more SA was detected in the albumen than in the yolk, when expressed either on a per gram or entire egg component basis, from hens fed .200 and .400% ASA. Thus, it appears that ASA can be fed to hens at dietary levels of .05% or lower for an entire production cycle without detectable accumulation (<5 ppm) of SA in the egg yolk or albumen.

Key words: Acetylsalicylic acid, Salicylic acid, Aspirin, Layer breeders, Eggs

1993 Poultry Science 72:1109-1117

Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

ABSTRACT
A trial was conducted to determine the effects of dietary protein restriction at an early age and intermittent lighting, designed for curtain-sided houses, on lameness and performance of Nicholas commercial male turkeys sired by male Line 88. Four isocaloric diets containing different levels of protein (100, 90, 80, or 70% of control value) were consumed ad libitum from 8 to 56 days. All birds were provided control diets from 1 to 7 days of age and from 57 to 124 days of age. Two lighting regimens, control [15 h light (L):9 h dark ([))] and intermittent (15L:2D:1.5L:2D:1.5L:2D), were each assigned randomly to two rooms from Day 8 until the end of the study. Light intensity was maintained at 20 lx throughout the study for both lighting regimens.

When compared with the control (15L:9D) photoperiod, intermittent lighting improved market body weight and feed efficiency and increased the incidence of leg abnormalities but did not affect overall mortality. The incidence of leg abnormalities among toms decreased linearly with decreasing levels of dietary protein at 85 days of age. However, the dietary effect on lameness was transient in that no differences were apparent at market age of 123 days. Mortality was not affected by dietary treatment. Testes weight increased and shank length decreased linearly with increasing levels of dietary protein. Toms fed the 90% protein diet in both lighting regimens had market body weights and feed efficiency values similar to those of controls. It is concluded that Nicholas commercial male turkeys have improved performance in intermittent lighting and can be fed dietary protein at 90% of control levels from 8 to 56 days of age to reduce feed cost.

Key words: Protein restriction, Intermittent lighting, Lameness, Performance, Turkeys

1993 Poultry Science 72:2131-2143

Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

ABSTRACT
A trial was conducted to determine the effects of dietary protein restriction at an early age and intermittent lighting, designed for curtain-sided houses, on the carcass characteristics of Nicholas commercial male turkeys (sired by male Line 88). Four isocaloric diets containing various levels of protein (100, 90, 80, or 70% of control values) were fed ad libitum from 8 to 56 days of age. All birds were fed control diets from 1 to 7 days of age and from 57 to 124 days of age. Two lighting regimens, a control of 15 h light (L):9 h dark ([)), and intermittent (15L:2D:1.5L:2D:1.5L:2D), were each assigned randomly to two rooms from Day 8 until the end of the study.

Turkeys reared in intermittent lighting had heavier weights for whole breast (muscle and bone, P<.06) and breast muscle (without bone, P<.07) than those of the control (15L:9D) photoperiod. Toms fed the 90% protein diet in both lighting regimens had carcass part weights and yields similar to the controls. The weight of the breast and breast muscle and the percentage yield of breast and breast muscle decreased in birds fed the 80 and 70% CP diets. It is concluded that Nicholas commercial male turkeys can be reared in intermittent lighting and can be fed dietary protein levels at 90% of the control level from 8 to 56 days of age without negatively affecting the weights or yields of carcass parts.

Key words: Protein restriction, Intermittent lighting, Carcass characteristics, Turkeys

1993 Poultry Science 72:2144-2151

Department of Animal 5ciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

ABSTRACT
A computerized system for recording and calculating egg production, titled EGGSPERT, was developed to decrease the amount of time required for manual calculation of hen-day production. For 4 wk of production, hard-shelled (HS), soft-shelled (SS), shell-less (SL), SS + SL, and total hen-day egg productions were recorded and calculated both by hand and by the EGGSPERT system for 900 hens divided into 60 experimental units. Both methods of egg production analysis produced similar results with respect to HS, SS, SS + SL, and total hen-day production. However, analysis of SL egg production revealed a small, although significant (P< .05) increase of computerized recording when compared with the manual method of recording and calculating egg production (1.39 vs 1.31%, SEM = .03). A major advantage of the EGGSPERT system was a 6.4 h/wk decrease in time and labor required to total and calculate hen-day egg production when compared with the manual method of calculation. In conclusion, the EGG5PERT system was found to be a very reliable, accurate, and timesaving method for recording and calculating egg production.

Key words: Hen, Egg production, Computer, Shell quality, Bar code

1994 Poultry Science 73:591-595

Department of Poultry Science, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602

ABSTRACT
Because elevated ambient temperatures decrease fertility, this study was designed to segregate the male and female contribution to heat stress infertility in broiler breeders. Eighty hens and 16 roosters at 21 wk of age were divided equally among two heat stress (S) and two control (C) temperature chambers. For a 10-wk pretreatment period, all birds were maintained at an ambient temperature of 21.1 C and 40% relative humidity. Following the pretreatment period, birds in the S chambers were acclimated for 1 wk at a constant temperature of 29.4 C after which the temperature in the S chambers was increased to 32.2 C for 8 wk. The temperature in the two C chambers was maintained at 21.1 C. Hens in each chamber were artificially inseminated on a weekly basis with 5 x 107 sperm per 50 µL from either C or S males.

Egg production, semen volume, spermatocrit, and percentage dead sperm were similar during the acclimation period, even though body temperature was significantly elevated in S birds (41.8 vs 41.3 C). Sperm penetration of the perivitelline layer overlying the germinal disc (GD) was decreased in eggs from hens inseminated with semen from S males compared to eggs from hens inseminated with semen from C males (9.5 vs 23.4 sperm per GD). Following the acclimation period, body temperature remained elevated in the S birds compared to the C birds (42.2 vs 41.3 C). Also, egg production was depressed in the S vs C hens (55.8 vs 82.9%). Semen volume, spermatocrit, and percentage dead sperm were not affected by S treatment. However, when hens were inseminated with semen from S males, sperm penetration of the perivitelline layer overlying the GD and egg fertility were decreased compared to hens inseminated with semen from C males (SA vs 14.9 sperm per GD, 45.5 vs 73.8% fertility). In conclusion, the male bird appears to contribute more to heat stress infertility than the female.

Key words: Sperm-egg penetration, Fertility, Heat stress, Broiler breeder, Chicken

1995 Poultry Science 74:1029-1038

Department of Poultry Science, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602

ABSTRACT
An experiment was conducted to test the effect of age (male and female) on the number of spermatozoa penetrating the perivitelline layer (PL) overlying the germinal disc (GD) in broiler breeders. Eighty young broiler breeder hens (39 wk old, Y), and 80 old spent broiler breeder hens (69 wk old, O) were randomly divided into eight groups of 20 hens each by age. Hens were inseminated weekly for 4 consecutive wk with 5 x 10⁷ pooled sperm/50 µL from either young or old broiler breeder males. Sperm penetration (SP) of the PL at the GD was assessed in a random sample of 12 oviposited eggs from each hen group for each day postinsemination, with the remainder of the eggs incubated for 10 d to obtain fertility values. For the main effect of sex, and for age within sex, there were differences in mean SP (7.3 vs 4.8; Y vs O hens; P<0.02) and fertility (73.7 vs 54.9%; Y vs O hens; P<0.002) values. Old males had higher mean SP values and fertility (7.2 and 70.6%) than young males (4.8 and 58.0%; P<0.03 and 0.01, respectively). Following artificial insemination of a constant number of sperm, age of hens appears to contribute more to the decrease in SP and fertility than the age of male broiler breeders.

Eggs were obtained from naturally mated broiler breeder flocks from different strains (A and B), lines (male and female), and ages. There was an effect on overall mean SP values due to strain (105.8 vs 78.6 holes per GD area; Strains A and b, respectively; P<0.0001), and line within Strain B (106.4 vs 50.8 holes per GD; male and female line, respectively; P< 0.0001). There was a quadratic relationship between SP of the PL and age in Strain A with values ranging from 153.3 to 20.0 holes per GD area (P<0.003). In Strain B, SP holes in the PL decreased in the male line due to age (127.8 to 59.7 per GD; P<0.01), with an effect of age on the female line also (62.1 vs 37.8 holes per GD; P<0.05).

Key words: Broiler breeder, Age, Fertility, Sperm penetration

1996 Poultry Science 75:755-762

Department of Poultry Science, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602-2772

ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to test the effects of dietary energy intake on reproduction in genetically similar broiler breeder males and on the subsequent growth of their progeny. Fifty-nine 1-d-old pedigree broiler breeder male chicks were raised to breeding age. At 33 wk of age, 33 males were chosen and placed in one of three groups of 11 males per group and fed either 370, 330, or 290 kcal per bird per d. Each group contained both full and half brothers and had similar 6- and 33-wk mean body weights. There was a significant negative effect of decreased dietary energy intake on sperm concentration and total live sperm per milliliter of ejaculate, whereas there was no significant effect on ejaculate volume or percentage dead sperm per ejaculate.

Four groups of hens (21 wk of age) with 18 hens per group, were randomly assigned to each male dietary treatment group. Hens were artificially inseminated with 50 µL neat pooled semen from one of the three male treatment groups. There was a significant linear effect of diet on fertility, with no significant effect on hatch of fertile, hatch of eggs set, or embryonic mortality. There was no effect of sire energy intake on offspring body weights at 0, 3, or 6 wk of age. Hens were similarly artificially inseminated and sperm penetration determined for 9 consecutive d postinsemination. There was a significant quadratic relationship between sperm penetration of the perivitelline layer overlying the germinal disc and day postinsemination for each of the three male treatment groups. In addition, mean sperm penetration was 62.3, 42.9, and 6.6 holes in the germinal disc perivitelline layer for the high, medium, and low energy groups, respectively. Following 16 wk of dietary energy treatment, there was a significant linear effect of diet on mean testes weight, mean testes weight as a percentage of male body weight, and male body weight.

Key words: Broiler breeder, Male dietary energy, Reproduction, Offspring growth, Sperm penetration

1996 Poultry Science 75:767-775

Department of Poultry Science, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602

ABSTRACT
The purpose of the present study was to define the role of the male broiler breeder in heat-induced infertility. Seventy-two Arbor Acres roosters were individually caged at 21 wk of age and divided equally among three heated (H) and three control (C) temperature chambers. Control temperature chambers were held at 21 C. After an 8-wk pretreatment period (20 C), an 8-wk treatment period was conducted in which the temperature in all three of the H chambers was varied from week to week according to the following schedule: Week 1, 27 C; Week 2 through Week 4, 32 C; and Week 5 through Week 8, 21 C. On a weekly basis, semen was pooled by room and inseminated into 12 groups of 10 hens each (2 groups per room). During the 1st wk when males were maintained at 27 C for 12 h, in vivo sperm-egg penetration was reduced by 48% as compared to data obtained when males were maintained at 21 C. Fertility, in vivo sperm-egg penetration, and uterovaginal sperm storage were decreased when semen from males exposed to 32 C was used to inseminate hens as compared to insemination with semen from C males. However, during this same period, the ability of sperm to bind to and penetrate the egg, as determined by in vitro sperm-egg penetration, was similar between sperm from C and H males. After lowering the temperature in the H chambers back to 21 C, in vivo sperm-egg penetration as a result of insemination with semen from H males was analogous to results obtained when C males were used for insemination. Immediately after decreasing the temperature in the H chambers, fertilization of eggs by sperm from H males increased to a level similar to that obtained when eggs were fertilized by sperm from C males but then declined again during the later weeks.

Key words: Sperm-egg penetration, Oviductal sperm storage, Fertility, heat stress, Broiler breeder

1996 Poultry Science 75:1546-1554