11:00-11:50 a.m. CULTURE (Discussion Session) Salon A

Presider: John Riley, University of Montevallo

CHILDHOOD EXPERIENCES AND TEACHERS' ATTITUDES TOWARD CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Candace H. Lacey, Barry University, and Amany Saleh, Arkansas State University

             Even though there is a plethora of studies addressing the topic of multicultural education, there is very little research on teachers' life experiences and how they effect their attitudes and beliefs toward diversity and multicultural education. Indeed, little is known regarding exactly what impact childhood experiences have in shaping the attitudes and beliefs that teachers bring to the classroom and which in turn effect students' learning. This study explored teachers' childhood experiences with diversity as they impacted their present attitudes towards cultural diversity issues including the role of special interest groups, employment opportunities, educational programs, and ethnic/cultural heritage.
             A sample of 139 teachers currently enrolled in graduate courses in two major universities was asked to complete three instruments: (1) an adapted version of the Ethnic Attitude Test, (2) an Assessment of Life Experiences, and (3) a brief demographic profile. Results were analyzed using a correlation between the Assessment of Life Experiences inventory and the Ethnic Attitude Test.
             Results indicated that childhood experiences with diversity had a statistically significant influence on four current attitudes: (1) the perception of children's attitudes toward diversity, (2) the validity of a mono-culture society, (3) the perception of the United States as a mono-cultural nation, and (4) the perception of the role of ethnic-cultural-racial studies as they impact special interest groups.
             The implications of the findings were discussed, and recommendations were offered to assist in understanding the influence of teacher's personal life experiences with diversity and how these attitudes and beliefs may impact the teacher/student relationship in the classroom.

ASSESSING THE RACIAL AWARENESS OF MAJORITY GROUP MEMBER STUDENTS AT EAST TENNESSEE STATE UNIVERSITY AND THE FACTORS RELATED TO RACIAL AWARENESS

Lavern Terrell and Russell F. West, East Tennessee State University

             East Tennessee State University (ETSU) has made a commitment to helping students understand themselves and tolerate and appreciate others. To that end, the purpose of this study was to determine the racial awareness of majority group member students at ETSU and factors related to racial awareness. Seven research questions and five hypotheses were examined.
             The Oklahoma Racial Attitudes Survey-Preliminary Form (ORAS-P) was used to identify the racial awareness of white students enrolled at ETSU during fall 1999. Forty-six classes were surveyed, obtaining a sample totaling 395 students.
             In addition to completing the ORAS-P, students in the sample were asked the following demographic questions: gender, age, city and state of birth, name and location of high school from which they graduated, race, parents occupation and highest level of education, annual family income, college classification, number of core classes that have a diversity component completed at ETSU, and the nature of contact they have had with someone of a different race. Once the students' racial awareness levels were determined, t-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to test for differences between subgroups on the ORAS-P.
             Results showed that annual family income and contact with minorities were significantly related to racial awareness while the percentage of minorities in the high school the respondent graduated from and the number of core classes having a diversity component completed at ETSU were not related to racial awareness.
             Hierarchical multiple regression was used to determine how effectively the independent variables could predict one's level of racial awareness. Analysis showed that the variables of age, gender, annual family income, and contact (with minorities) were the most significant predictors of racial awareness.

11:00-11:50 a.m. GIFTED EDUCATION (Symposium) Salon B

Presider: Linda W. Morse, Mississippi State University

THE POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN CREATIVITY: THE IMPACT OF PERSONALITY AND COGNITIVE VARIABLES ON DIVERGENT PRODUCTION

Linda W. Morse and David T. Morse, Mississippi State University, and Gregg A. Johns, Mississippi State Hospital

Overview

             Creativity researchers have called for investigation of how personality and cognitive variables relate to creative behavior and problem solving. This symposium was organized to present findings that, for the domain of divergent thinking, addressed these issues and extended the understanding of aspects of and influences on creative behavior. This symposium included three topics.
             All presentations conveyed aspects of a study conducted on 77 volunteer students enrolled in undergraduate courses in Educational Psychology. The mean age was 21.0 yr (SD = 2.6). Most (88%) were female and classified as junior- or senior-level students (61%). Sixteen were African American (21%), 77% were Caucasian, and two represented other ethnic backgrounds.

Study 1: Do High- and Low-Creative Students Differ in Risk Taking?

             The extent to which risk-taking corresponded to divergent thinking scores, fluency, flexibility, and originality and to scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking-Figural (TTCT) was examined in two ways. First, Pearson correlations between risk-taking scores, from the Zuckerman sensation-seeking scale, and divergent thinking and TTCT scores were computed. Second, students whose TTCT scores were in the highest quartile locally were compared with those whose TTCT scores were in the lowest local quartile. The two groups were then compared on risk-taking scores. In both analyses, there was no statistically significant evidence of a relationship. The correlations were all low (.19 or less) and nonsignificantly different from zero at the .05 level. The extreme groups comparison (highest, lowest TTCT) also yielded a nonsignificant difference in mean risk taking.

Study 2: The Relationship of Metacognition and Creativity

             Participants completed a metacognition survey that presented a series of vignettes and posed questions about each one. The metacognition scores were found to correlate with TTCT scores and divergent thinking originality scores at levels that were statistically significantly greater than zero. A multiple regression analysis, forcing prior course work in creativity in first to account for differences in training, also showed that the creativity measures (fluency, flexibility, originality, and TTCT), when added to the regression model, yielded a statistically significant improvement in the prediction of metacognition scores, from R = .27 to .49, F(4, 70) = 3.98, p = .006.

Study 3: Verbal Reinforcement and Divergent Production

             Is divergent production enhanced by simple instances of verbal reinforcement (e.g., "Great work, keep it up")? Participants were randomly assigned divergent production tasks that either did or did not have verbal reinforcements embedded in two task stimuli. A multivariate comparison of the treatment groups, using TTCT scores as a covariate, was run. Though the differences on overall fluency, flexibility, and originality scores were all in the predicted direction, the effect sizes were all small (.20-.25) and did not result in statistically significant differences, F(3, 71) = 1.08, p = .36.

Audience Participation

             Sample divergent thinking tasks were used to acquaint those attending with the types of creative behavior and scoring rubrics used. In addition, discussion of the findings and implications of the studies was encouraged.

11:00-11:50 a.m. TECHNOLOGY (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 1

Presider: Rod Roth, The University of Alabama

A LEADER'S REFLECTIONS: TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES AND USE AT AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Debra Hildreth, Rock Quarry (AL) Elementary School, and Vivian H. Wright and Margaret L. Rice, The University of Alabama

             This discussion presented one leader's reflections on technological resources and teachers' use at an elementary school. Following a three-year longitudinal case study, which included teacher assessments of technology use and planned interventions, the data offered many opportunities for reflection and helped to target weaknesses and strengths of teachers using technology in teaching and learning.
             The school used in the study is an elementary magnet school located in a city in Alabama. The participants in the study were administrators, faculty, and staff at the school. Assessments were conducted at the beginning of the school year. The same assessments were conducted at the end of the year. These assessments included: (1) discussions with the principal to develop a summary of resources available to teachers and students, (2) administration of a researcher developed instrument called the Media Use Survey, and (3) administration of a researcher developed instrument called the Basic Computer Knowledge Test. Interventions were implemented between the assessments.
             The session presented an outline of the study, and results of this longitudinal study, and offered suggestions about how a leader can proactively anticipate trials and successes and plan for future use of technology in teaching and learning.

INNOVATIVE USES OF THREADED DISCUSSION GROUPS

Yardley S. Bailey and Vivian Wright, The University of Alabama

             Institutions of higher education throughout the United States and abroad are focusing on the installation and use of instructional technology in classroom settings. An emerging trend is the use of integrated web packages like FrontPage, Blackboard, and WebCT. One prominent feature of these packages is threaded discussion groups. This presentation will centered on case studies about how faculty from various disciplines has discovered innovative ways to use discussion groups.
             In a discussion group, an index contains hyperlinks to an area of interest submitted by a user. A response to a previous posting creates a hyperlink to the new article that is indented below the original. All articles are available through the index and can be arranged according to the date posted or subject. The participants in the study used threaded discussion groups extensively and have expanded this tool in novel ways to enhance their teaching and their students' learning.
             This study examined how faculty used threaded discussion groups through the qualitative collection of data. Each participant was asked a set of specific questions, derived from the literature and personal technological experiences of the researchers. Their responses were analyzed to see differences and/or similarities based on discipline, academic rank, and overall teaching philosophy. Novel uses of the format were analyzed and highlighted to discover exactly what makes this use different and effective.
             Research has shown that students who participate in integrated lessons using discussion groups as a component engage in more constructivist learning and exhibit "deeper" thought through written discourse. It has also been shown that students who typically do not participate in traditional classroom discussion tend to participate more in threaded discussion groups. The findings from the study would be useful to college educators in all disciplines.

HOW ONE THIRD-GRADE TEACHER INTEGRATES TECHNOLOGY INTO THE CURRICULUM: A QUALITATIVE STUDY

Anissa Harris and Bob Cage, University of Louisiana at Monroe

             Modern educators and legislators banter endlessly regarding the praxis, structure, and curriculum of American schools. Arguments surface daily regarding the most effective teaching methods, the best testing strategies, accountability, and a myriad of other choice topics. One possible change-agent currently under public and professional scrutiny is the integration of technology into the classroom. Although some are convinced that technology integration is a mere fad (Cuban, 1993; Kimmel & Deek, 1995), others have found that creatively applied technology partnered with sound theoretical structure can positively affect both teacher and student outcomes (Pedretti, Mayer-Smith, & Woodrow, 1999). Following an overview of technology integration, this paper examined specific classroom activities that integrate technology into the curriculum using the "hands-on/minds-on" approach and suggested that appropriate planning can create many educational benefits for students. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively examine and evaluate the integration of technology into the curriculum by one third-grade teacher in a north Louisiana elementary school. The data, gathered by interviews, observations, and document analysis, present student and teacher attitudes toward this integration process. This study implied that creative classroom activities initiated by changing individual teaching paradigms and a genuine concern for teaching, sharing, and changing lives can substantially affect student learning behaviors and participation when technology is integrated into the curriculum.

11:00-11:50 a.m. STATISTICS (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 2

Presider: Diana Gardiner, LSU School of Dentistry

TOWARDS AN EXTENDED TYPOLOGY OF RESEARCH ERRORS

Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Valdosta State University

             The paper proposed a new typology for understanding common research errors and focuses on: (1) review of Type I and Type II errors, (2) explanation of the oft-forgotten Type III and Type IV errors, and (3) recommendation that six additional types of error be added to this typology. Examples were presented to illustrate Type I and Type II errors, with attention given to simultaneous control of both types of error. Next, an explanation of typical errors that fall into the Type III (incorrect inferences about result directionality) and Type IV ("effects error") categories was offered along with examples of erroneous conclusions researchers draw when committing these errors.
             Finally, six additional types of error were discussed and codified: (1) Type V error-internal replication error-measured via incidence of Type I or Type II errors detected during internal replication cycles when using methodologies such as the jackknife procedure, (2) Type VI error-reliability generalization error-measured via linkages of statistical results to characteristics of scores on the measures used to generate results (a particularly problematic type of error when researchers fail to consider differential reliability estimates for subsamples within a data set), (3) Type VII error-heterogeneity of variance/regression-measured via the extent to which data treated via analysis of variance/covariance are not appropriately screened to determine whether they meet homogeneity assumptions prior to interpretation of group comparison statistics, (4) Type VIII error-test directionality error-measured as the extent to which researchers express alternative hypotheses as directional yet assess results with two-tailed tests, (5) Type IX error-sampling bias error-measured via disparities in results generated from numerous convenience samples across a multiplicity of similar studies, and (6) Type X error-degrees of freedom error-measured as the tendency of researchers using certain statistical procedures (chiefly stepwise procedures) to erroneously compute the degrees of freedom utilized in these procedures.

A PRIMER ON UNIVARIATE AND MULTIVARIATE REPEATED MEASURES DESIGNS AND THE SPHERICITY ASSUMPTION

Stephen C. Kogos, Jr., University of Southern Mississippi

             Change over time is a fundamental issue in many research contexts. Often, experiments are carefully designed to allow evaluation of change in a dependent variable(s) in regard to manipulated independent variables. However, true experiments require random assignment of multiple subjects to treatment conditions. In many cases, this requirement is either impossible or not feasible.
             Repeated measures designs provide an alternative to the true experiment in such cases. These designs, often called "within subjects" designs, examine the impact of different levels of some independent variable on the dependent variable for a single group of persons. A primary advantage of repeated measures designs lies with the need for fewer subjects in the study to obtain the same level of statistical power as regards treatment effects. Since the same subjects are used in each treatment condition, the variance attributable to subjects can be partitioned out of the error term, resulting in more power against Type II error.
             Despite the apparent advantages of these designs in some educational and psychological research, appropriate implementation of the methods demands that researchers be aware of the fundamental methodological issues surrounding their use. In particular, univariate repeated measures designs require the sphericity assumption. In contrast, the multivariate repeated measures approach treats responses at each treatment condition as separate variables and does not require that sphericity be met.
             The paper presented an overview of both univariate and multivariate repeated measures designs. Advantages and disadvantages of each approach were also considered, including discussion of the sphericity assumption and methods to correct for violation of this important prerequisite in the univariate repeated measures case. Finally, suggestions for incorporating these statistical procedures into counseling psychology research were offered. A hypothetical data set was utilized to illustrate the methods and to make the discussion concrete.

DETECTING AND DEALING WITH OUTLIERS IN UNIVARIATE AND MULTIVARIATE CONTEXTS

Bettie Wiggins Barrett, The University of Southern Mississippi

             The recent report from the APA Task Force on Statistical Inference (Wilkinson & TFSI, 1999) contained a strong recommendation for researchers to spend increased time and effort in examining their data prior to submitting it to substantive analyses. The Task Force argued for more emphasis on graphical examination of data as well as for data screening procedures. Important in any data screening process are steps to detect whether outliers exist in one's data set. In keeping with the recommendations of the APA Task Force, researchers are encouraged to always examine whether outliers exist in their data and to make thoughtful decisions regarding how to then deal with these data points.
             Outliers may be considered as extreme data points that exert strong influence on statistics. It is important to note, however, that the same data point may have differential impact depending on which statistic is examined. For example, a point in a bivariate scatterplot may be considered atypical and heavily influence the mean of one of the variables (e.g., X). However, the plotted point may fall exactly on the regression line and actually help the R2 value. As such, the detection of outliers must invoke the context of the current study and the statistic that is of current interest.
             Many procedures are available to allow researchers to detect outliers in univariate and multivariate contexts. In light of the APA Task Force recommendation and in line with good research practice, the paper presented an overview of the need for data screening procedures along with the many reasons outliers may exist in a data set (including the legitimate inclusion and expectation of extreme points given asymptotic distributional assumptions). The paper provided a user-friendly treatment of various methods that researchers may employ in both detecting and dealing with outliers.

11:00-11:50 a.m. READING (Display Session) Meeting Room 4

THE USE OF REFLECTIVE BOOKMARKS TO ASSESS CONTENT-AREA READING STRATEGIES

Carolyn P. Casteel, University of South Alabama, and Bess A. Isom, University of Mobile

             Current perspectives about how comprehension should be taught emphasize learning a repertoire of strategies. Students need to be able to apply multiple strategies for interpreting, evaluating, and appreciating a broad range of text. This need is especially great when considering content-area reading material. Helping students develop and apply strategies within an interactive context calls for an adjustment in roles for teachers and requires assessment methods that are congruent with instructional emphases on strategic, student-centered processing of text.
             This observational study systematically analyzed elementary students' responses to content-area reading through the use of reflective bookmarks, i.e., individual bookmarks on which students were encouraged to interact with text while reading. Responses were analyzed according to a framework which included the following main headings: using prior knowledge, literal thinking, inferring, seeing relationships, personal connecting, organizing, summarizing, imaging, defining, valuing, and self-monitoring. Thirty participants were randomly selected from a pool of third- to eighth-grade students enrolled in a university reading clinic. At the onset of the study, use of the bookmarks was first explained and then modeled for each participant. Bookmarks were collected three times during a four-week period.
             Results indicated that reflective bookmarks can serve as a useful authentic assessment for observing how students of different ages apply content-reading strategies; the bookmarks are an unobtrusive means of identifying instructional strategy needs by gaining insight into how students are processing the content. Reflective bookmarks can also provide a record for students and can be used as a basis for self-evaluation and for evaluative interviews between teachers and students.

PRESERVICE TEACHERS' BOOK CHOICES: DOES DOMINANT INTELLIGENCE INFLUENCE SELECTION?

Lynda R. Frederick and Rebecca McMahon, University of South Alabama

             Intelligence is defined as the "ability to find and solve problems and create products of value in one's culture" (Campbell, 1992, p. 197). Howard Gardner states that people have "different strengths and contrasting cognitive styles" (Gardner, 1993, p. 6), indicating that there are dominant intelligences and dormant ones. Rather than promoting a single multiple intelligence approach, Gardner (1999) suggests that if differences among students are valued and taken seriously, that it should have implications for how material is presented to students. Although Gardner (1997) recognizes that "MI is not a quick fix" (p. 20), considering the multiple intelligences when establishing that a classroom library may positively influence students' interactions with and responses to literature, thus creating meaningful connections and deeper understandings. This study investigated the relationship between preservice teachers' dominant intelligence(s) and picture book preferences.
             Approximately 100 preservice teachers responded to the quiz "Where Does Your True Intelligence Lie?" (NEA, 1996) for the purpose of determining their dominant intelligence(s). Each respondent also reviewed and ranked 21 picture books, chosen to represent each of the seven originally identified intelligences (Nicholson-Nelson, 1998), according to personal preference. In addition, participants provided a written explanation for their first and last choices.
             Completed instruments were individually analyzed by two researchers for the purpose of identifying correlations between intelligences and book choices. Following a collaborative analysis of the researchers' notes, tentative findings were formulated. Tentative conclusions were drawn, and attempts to verify conclusions included comparison of initial findings to results of a second, similar sample (n=40). Findings of this study suggested valuable implications for classroom practice.

11:00-11:50 a.m. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Training Session) Meeting Room 5

HOW TO PREPARE EFFECTIVE CONFERENCE PRESENTATIONS

Donna Pascoe, Jennifer M. Good, and Susanne MacGuire, Auburn University

             The scope of this training session was to provide graduate students with the opportunity to learn how to organize and present papers at regional and national conferences. Often, graduate students are expected to complete particular professional development activities in partial fulfillment of degree requirements; however, they frequently do not receive the guidance necessary to complete these tasks. Hence, the purpose of this training session was to allow graduate students the opportunity to discover effective methods to complete professional research presentations. Specifically, the session allowed participants to actively practice and critique presentations for roundtables, poster sessions, and discussion.
             Objectives of the session included: (1) understanding and verbalizing the differences between roundtable, discussion, and poster presentations, (2) critiquing examples of notes/overheads from different roundtable, discussion, and poster presentations, and (3) developing ideas for overhead and outlines which would be appropriate for presentation.
             Participants responded in writing to the following prompt, "After attending various presentations this week, which have been effective? Why?" Responses were discussed in groups. A guided discussion with overheads of characteristics of an effective presentation was held. Each trainer gave a brief overview (with overheads) of the three common presentation modes: poster presentation, paper presentation, and roundtable. The trainer role-modeled an abbreviated presentation. Participants completed a rating form and discuss the presentation's strengths and weaknesses. With a partner, participants created at least five ideas for overheads and outlines in response to a brief research scenario. Volunteers presented and discussed their outlines with others. Participants reflected in writing on the following prompt: "What have you learned about presentations? What will you do differently as you approach your next presentation? What other information would you like to know regarding effective presentations?" Responses were discussed at the end of the training session.