1:00-1:50 p.m. COUNSELING (Discussion Session) Salon A

Presider: Candace Lacey, Barry University

A REVIEW OF SEXUALLY-ADDICTED CLIENTS

James R. Meadows and Katherine Dooley, Mississippi State University

              The paper examined pertinent literature in the area of sexual addiction and sexually-addicted behaviors. The paper defined sexual addiction as an out-of-control pattern of sexual behavior that is maintained because to an obsession of sexual behavior(s), which may be life threatening. Because of limited related research, the work of Patrick Cares, a well-known researcher in the field of sexual addiction, was used as the basis of this research paper. However, the works of other researchers were included.
             In his book, Don't Call It Love , Patrick Carnes identified several characteristics of sexual addiction, which include: (1) a pattern of out-of-control behavior(s), (2) severe consequences of sexual behavior, (3) attempts to stop, but no success, (4) high risk, self-destructive behaviors, (5) sexual fantasy and fantasy-coping strategies, (6) increased amounts of sexual activity, (7) time-focused on obtaining sex, having sex, or recovering from sex, and (8) neglect of social, occupational, or leisure activities.
             In addition, Cares has characterized all sexually-addicted behaviors into eleven behavioral types. These behavioral types include: (1) fantasy sex, (2) seductive role sex, (3) voyeuristic sex, (4) exhibitionistic sex, (5) anonymous sex, (6) paying for sex, (7) trading or bartering sex, (8) exploitive sex (sex with children), (9) intrusive sex, (10) pain exchange sex, and (11) object sex.
             The authors presented Cares work on identifying and characterizing sexually addicted behaviors. Also, the authors addressed further characteristics and consequences of sexually-addicted behaviors, such as family history, emotional history, physical and psychological problems, and personal consequences related to clients' addictive behaviors.
             Finally, the authors concluded with a review of sexually-addictive behavior characteristics. In the review was presented an assessment of sexual addiction that may be used in identifying clients with these types of addictive behaviors.

THE WHO AND WHAT OF REHABILITATION COUNSELING RESEARCH: SEX OF AUTHORS AND TYPES OF STUDIES CONDUCTED WITHIN A TEN-YEAR PERIOD

Amy L. Skinner, The University of Tennessee-Knoxville

             This study examined research, published in three leading rehabilitation counseling journals from January 1990 through December 1999 to discover how much and which types of research women authors had conducted. Also examined was the ratio of the sex of published authors in these journals and the relationship between sex of authors and types of rehabilitation counseling research published in these journals.
             Journals included in the study were the Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling and The Journal of Rehabilitation and Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin . One hundred twenty journals, 40 of each, were reviewed. Discussion focused on current trends with respect to author's sex and article type (i. e. empirical, expository, etc), and implications for a field where practitioners (rehabilitation counselors) were primarily female.

MULTIPLE ADDICTIONS IN UNDERGRADUATE COLLEGE STUDENTS

Amy M. Wooten and Katherine M. Dooley, Mississippi State University

             This study investigated the presence of multiple addictions in undergraduate college students. The 218 undergraduate college students were administered the South Oaks Gambling Screen, the Short Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test, and the Survey of Sexual Addictions Indicators. Data were analyzed using both descriptive measures and chi-square tests of independence. Results indicated that these college students evidenced multiple addictions. A statistically significant relationship was found between alcohol addiction and gender. In addition, a statistically significant relationship existed between reported parental sexual addiction and participants' sexual addiction scores.

1:00-1:50 p.m. STATISTICS (Symposium) Salon B

Organizer: Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida

Discussant: Gerald Halpin, Auburn University

CURRENT ISSUES IN RELIABILITY ANALYSIS

Overview

Authors of statistics textbooks routinely report that statistical power is affected by at least three components: (1) sample size, (2) level of statistical significance, and (3) effect size. However, a fourth component should be added, namely, the reliability of scores. Reliability, which typically ranges from 0 (measurement is all error) to 1 (no error in measurement), is the proportion of variance in the observed scores that is free from error. (Reliability coefficients also can be negative.) Unfortunately, as noted by Onwuegbuzie and Daniel (1999, 2000), relatively few researchers report reliability coefficients for data from their samples (Onwuegbuzie, 1999; Vacha-Haase, 1999; Vacha-Haase, Nilsson, & Reetz, 1999). This trend stems, in part, from a failure to realize that reliability is a function of scores, not of instruments (Thompson & Vacha-Haase, 2000; Vacha-Haase, 1998). The symposium presented three papers on the use and utility of reliability estimates in behavioral research followed by comments from a distinguished professor of educational research.

A Primer on Coefficient Alpha

Robin K. Henson, University of North Texas

The paper presented a conceptual primer on interpreting alpha and the factors that impact that interpretation. This paper also illustrated that it is data, not tests, that are either reliable or unreliable. Factors affecting the range of alpha, both conceptual and mathematical, were also discussed, including the circumstances for which alpha can be negative. Classical test theory was discussed as regards alpha and other measures of score reliability.

Reliability Generalization: The Importance of Considering Sample Specificity, Confidence Intervals, and Subgroup Differences

Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Valdosta State University, and Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida

             The purpose of the paper was to provide a strong rationale for reporting reliability coefficients for underlying data. Specifically, uses of confidence intervals around reliability coefficients were advocated considering that reliability coefficients represent only point estimates. Further, it was argued that confidence intervals around reliability coefficients can be compared to coefficients presented in test manuals to assess generalizability. Finally, it was contended that reliability coefficients should not only be reported for the full sample at hand, but also for each subgroup. A heuristic example is utilized for the two-sample case (i.e., t-test) to illustrate how comparing subgroups with different reliability coefficients can affect Type I and Type II error rates.

Unreliable Does Not Equal Unuseful: The Use and Misuse of Data with Low Reliability Estimates

J. Kyle Roberts, Baylor College of Medicine, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Valdosta State University

             Much of the current research concerning reliability is emphatically suggesting that researchers gather their own reliability estimates when administering an instrument. It has also been recommended that data with low reliability then be discarded. While some data obtained from instruments that originally yielded reliable results may be unreliable, it does not necessarily follow that the data are unuseful to researchers. Coefficient alpha could be small for at least two reasons: (1) student scores are less variable because of problems associated with the instrument, or (2) student scores are less variable because student homogeneity. Methods for determining the stability of unreliable data were discussed.

1:00-1:50 p.m. LEARNING (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 1

Presider: Doug Masini, East Tennessee State University

AN ANALYSIS OF ONE SCHOOL'S ATTEMPT TO REDUCE WHITE FLIGHT BY IMPROVING PRIMARY STUDENT READING LEVELS, TECHNOLOGY USE, AND PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

Sherri L. Cousin and Jack Klotz, The University of Southern Mississippi

             The year-long study examined how a Mississippi school, when faced with growing rates of white flight, developed a program to not only change the perception of their school, but also increase reading achievement, technology use, and teacher proficiency in an effort to change attitudes and improve student and parent satisfaction.
This paper presented background, strategies, objectives and results of the program design. The main vehicle of instructional strategy was the utilization of technology to improve instructional delivery in reading. One component of this approach was a strong emphasis in staff development with an emphasis in technology infusion into the curriculum. Another element was a concentrated effort to motivate the learners through self-assessment, immediate feedback, and deliberate praise.
             The assessment of this study was presented and was grounded in the analysis of reading achievement data. Student achievement was measured by a nationally recognized reading achievement test. Students were tested in the fall and retested in the spring. Student enrollment figures, by race, were taken from official state records. To assess student and parent satisfaction levels with the school's reading and technology program, a pre- and post-attitudinal survey was collected, one in the spring and another in the fall. More that 95% of all students and parents responded both times.
The findings of this study suggested that reading achievement has a positive correlation with technology use in the classroom. Further, the study revealed that, although satisfaction ratings can improve as well as reading levels, it does not necessarily attribute to a lessening of white flight

LEARNING DIFFERENCES IN SIGN LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Tawnya J. Smith and Linda Morse, Mississippi State University

             Research on sign language appears to center on the benefits of learning it. However, there appears to be relatively sparse information about how it should be taught, evaluated, and the differences in learning. Instruction, evaluation, and learning differences of normal hearing populations have been highly researched. Does it suffice to say that our knowledge of language can be generalizable to sign language? The purpose of this study was to explore learning differences in sign language. This study attempted to find if individuals are more accurate in recalling signs when they are demonstrated and they must identify the sign or when they are asked to demonstrate the sign. This study also investigated if there were any significant gender effects. A comparison on the accuracy of difference parts of speech was conducted to determine if certain parts of speech were easier to recall.
             There were 17 educational psychology students who participated in three instructional sessions and were then evaluated on their retention. One group (N= 9) was evaluated on their memory for the meaning of the sign when it was demonstrated to them. The other group (N= 8) had to demonstrate the sign when the instructor presented them with the word.
             The group that was evaluated on the meaning of a sign remembered more words than the group that had to demonstrate the sign. No gender differences were observed. Results also revealed that nouns and adjectives were more accurately recalled than verbs and adverbs. Implications of this research were discussed as well as recommendations for future research.

FOSTERING READING AND LANGUAGE SKILLS IN YOUNG CHILDREN: A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Nicholas Brake and Patricia Ashley, Daviess County (KY) Schools, and Mimi Mitchell Davis, Educational Consultant

             Reading is an exercise in language use, and good readers draw from their knowledge of language to comprehend a written message. In short, the ability to use language is essential to the reading process.
             Realizing its importance and the fact that some students do not have the language skills necessary for reading success, the school district of this study implemented an individualized computer-based training program intended to improve reading and language skills. The program uses acoustically-modified speech and speech sounds in its interactive exercises. Learning sessions are daily (five times per week) for two hours. Depending on the child's rate of learning, the program typically runs four to eight weeks.
             Based on teacher recommendations and test scores, 50 students in grades P2 to grade five were identified as being deficient in language and reading and were selected to participate in the program. In an effort to monitor the gains made by these students in language and reading, the district evaluated student progress. The students were pre- and posttested using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF-3) and the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test-Revised (WRMT-R) to evaluate gains in language and reading as a result of their participation. Several paired samples statistical procedures were conducted to examine the significance of the posttest results compared to the pretest scores.
             An analysis of the CELF-3 data indicated a statistically significant improvement by students in the program in the areas of receptive language and recalling sentences. The results indicated that the difference from the pretest to the posttest did not occur by change. Therefore, with 99% confidence, the researchers conducted that the improvement was because of the students' participation in the program. The findings of this study have implications for those who are interested in assisting students with reading and language difficulties.

1:00-1:50 p.m. SOCIAL SCIENCE (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 2

Presider: Marcia R. O'Neal, The University of Alabama at Birmingham

EFFECTS OF INFUSION OF SPIRITUALITY INTO EDUCATION: BREAKING DOWN "THE WALL OF SILENCE"

Charles L McLafferty, Jr., The University of Alabama at Birmingham

             This position paper presented a vision of education that accepts and infuses spirituality into every aspect of learning. Though a "wall of silence" exists in the fields of psychology and education, a growing interest in spirituality presages profound changes in our culture. Acceptance of spiritual concepts in educational endeavors could transform teaching, classroom management, and the effects on students.
             Today, much testing emphasizes "right or wrong" answers with multiple choice batteries that numb the intellect. Hopefully in the future assessments will challenge the mind and soul with so-called "unanswerable" questions. The ends will not be the "earning" of a grade, but something infinitely more valuable: the unshakable understanding of oneself as a unique being in a supportive universe. In order to reach this understanding, it is necessary for psychologists and educators to recognize the possibility of something beyond the self and find ways to nurture a relationship with it. A meaningful personality development must coincide with a sane and balanced integration of spiritual energy and understanding.
             Meaning will supersede the memorization of facts. This will promote a core, a center of universal "higher values" around which the personality can organize and develop. Later in life, there will be less need for "ethics" or "religiosity," as the person will have an internal compass far more accurate and unerring than these manmade attempts at providing external direction. Each discipline will advance the others and, above all, will help students know who they are, and what they are in the process of becoming. Slowly we will move toward the understanding that all academic disciplines are part of the same search for truth, and that all cultures, races and types of people are our brothers and sisters.
             A spiritual psychology will inform education in the training of genius, which will be recognized as a spiritual gift. As a result, society will put as many resources into genius as we currently put into "special education." Genius thus fostered will assist in the further transformation of society.

THE NEW SOCIAL STUDIES TEXTBOOKS: WHAT LEVELS OF THINKING DO THEY PROMOTE?

Gregory Risner, Janice Nicholson, and Brenda Webb, University of North Alabama

             Previous research concerning cognitive levels of elementary social studies textbooks revealed a preponderance of knowledge-level questions and activities. This study investigated the cognitive levels of questioning included in the teacher's manuals of the latest editions of elementary social studies textbooks.
             Data were derived from two of the most widely used fifth-grade social studies textbooks in California, Texas, and Alabama combined. The textbooks selected for study were: (1) Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich and (2) Macmillan/McGraw-Hill. After obtaining an interrater agreement of .96, three raters independently classified questions from the lesson plans that accompany teacher's editions according to Bloom's major categories.
             Collectively, 76 items were classified as assessing knowledge, 124 items were classified as above-knowledge level. A chi-square statistical comparison (knowledge vs. above-knowledge level questions) indicated that the two series collectively included significantly (p<.001) more above-knowledge-level questions. Moreover, a comparison between the two most widely-used series indicated that Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich contained significantly (p<.001) more above-knowledge-level items than the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill textbook series.
             These data represented a much-needed shift from knowledge-only questions that have historically permeated the questioning patterns in previous social studies teacher's editions. Further, these findings indicated that the new social studies editions provide an opportunity for students to demonstrate understanding and application of elementary social studies information.

CURRENT EVENTS AND COLLEGE STUDENTS: CONNECTING "HEADLINE NEWS" TO THE CLASSROOM

Judy Hale McCrary and Patricia Lowry, Jacksonville State University

             The purpose of the study was to determine if preservice elementary education majors were connecting classroom learning about current events to an actual current event outside the classroom. The sample consisted of 53 students who were enrolled in a required course entitled "Curriculum Integration in Social Studies."
             Teaching students about current events can open new horizons for them as they learn to deal with public issues that will affect the future. One goal of social studies is civic competence: to help young people "develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world." The main focus of this research was to show students how to support opinions with facts.
             Several methods of data collection were used throughout the semester and included questionnaires and reflective writing. Students were encouraged at the beginning of the semester to gather information from various news sources in order to identify the facts and issues. A cross-case analysis was used to determine the results.
             The findings indicated that as the semester progressed students' attention to the "Headline News" increased. There was a decrease in the number of students who had "no opinion" as it pertained to an ongoing current event. The findings also indicated that students were displeased with the media's over attention to a particular ongoing current event.
The main conclusion was that when students read beyond the details and news accounts and began identifying facts and issues, they were able to formulate an opinion based on facts.

1:00-1:50 p.m. PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT (Training Session) Meeting Room 5

DEVELOPMENTS IN CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

Jim R. Flaitz, The University of Louisiana-Lafayette

             The past decade has seen significant changes in philosophy, theory, and practice regarding the assessment of student achievement in the classroom. These changes, driven largely by parallel developments in instructional theory and practice, and strongly influenced by cognitive science, present special challenges to classroom teachers with traditional or no formal training in assessment practices. While some of the newer classroom assessment texts address these changes, most of the more popular and widely-adopted texts continue to emphasize the more traditional views of assessment and the practices that most closely reflect those views.
             This training workshop was targeted to those teacher educators who are responsible for the development of classroom assessment skills among preservice or inservice teachers. The goals of the workshop were to: (1) familiarize participants with the trends and developments in cognitive science, instructional theory, and classroom assessment, (2) discuss the implications of these trends for the preparation of teachers in the area of classroom assessment, and (3) develop sample assessment materials based on the more contemporary models of instruction and assessment. Specific topics included: (1) linking assessment to instruction, (2) using assessment strategies that enhance intrinsic student motivation, (3) developing alternative hierarchical schemes for organizing student learner outcomes, (4) using traditional paper-and-pencil assessment forms to assess higher level thinking skills, and (5) creating effective performance assessment activities.
             Classroom teachers, school administrators, and school districts across the nation are increasingly being held accountable for student results on standardized achievement tests that emphasize reasoning and problem solving over retrieval of factual knowledge. These same groups are also being challenged to incorporate authentic assessments into their classroom practices. This training session provided some new tools for teacher educators as they prepare their students for the changing assessment landscape.