3:00-3:50 p.m. HEALTH ISSUES (Discussion Session) Salon A

Presider: Jennifer Good, Auburn University

CIGARETTE SMOKING AND BODY IMAGE CONCERNS AMONG FEMALES: A REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Roberta E. Donahue and Graham F. Watts, The University of Alabama

             In spite of the well-publicized morbidity and mortality risks associated with cigarette smoking, tobacco use among adolescent females is increasing. Data from the 1997 Monitoring the Future study show smoking among female twelfth-grade students in the United States increased from 27.5% in 1991 to 35.2% in 1997. Health educators must identify reliable predictors of smoking initiation and barriers to cessation among young women in order to design effective prevention programs for schools. The purpose of this review of literature was to summarize key studies that have found tobacco use to occur more frequently among females with body image concerns.
             The major findings discussed included: (1) use of tobacco by females as a weight control device (Camp, Klesges, & Relyea, 1993; Klesges & Klesges, 1988; Tomeo, Field, Berkey, Colditz, & Frasier, 1999), (2) fear of weight gain as a significant barrier to cessation (Lando, Pirie, Hellerstedt, & McGovern, 1991; Talcott et al., 1995), (3) body dissatisfaction associated with increased rates of smoking and drinking (Wright, 1989), (4) female current and past smokers felt less satisfied with their appearance than never smokers (Ben-Tovim & Walker, 1991), (5) high levels of concern about weight and shape typified female smokers both with and without eating disorders (Wiseman, Turco, Sunday, & Halmi, 1998), and (6) appearance-related motivations for smoking contributed to girls reporting less interest in smoking cessation than boys did (van Roosmalen & McDaniel, 1992).
             Preventing smoking initiation is a critical health education priority. School programs must address female body image issues as part of their Drug Education curriculum. Applied research is needed to better understand how diverse groups of girls and young women may internalize more positive body images in order to support health-enhancing, tobacco-free lifestyles.

AED IMPLEMENTATION IN SCHOOLS

Camille M. Filoromo, The University of Alabama

             There are many high schools and colleges placing automated external defibrillators (AED's) both on-campus and in extra-curricular activities such as sports events. One-third of all schools teaching CPR report trained students have used their skills in actual emergencies, (AHA, 2000). Researchers have also confirmed that sixth graders trained in AED's perform as effectively as paramedics (AHA, 1999). The statistics supporting the integration of AED's with CPR have been compelling enough to convince organizations and schools to implement their use. The purpose of this review of literature was to inform the educator that AED with CPR implementation in schools must be supported.
             The basic findings were: (1) in the United States alone, more than 1000 people suffer from sudden cardiac arrest, and more than 95% of them do not survive due to lack of early defibrillation, (American Heart Association, 1996), (2) resuscitation skills can be taught as early as the first grade, and one-third of all schools teaching CPR report that students have used their training in emergencies, (AHA, 2000), (3) efficacy of AED use in children over eight years old and over 55 pounds has been determined, (Atkins et. al., 1998, Sobel, 1998), (4) AED use is easily learned by children, (AHA, 1999), and (5) failure to have an AED available in cardiac emergencies can be a liability, (Sobel, 1998).
             AED's are being placed in National Football League games, shopping malls, airlines, and now schools. Because research has confirmed early defibrillation is critical in sudden cardiac arrest, and their efficacy of use in children has been determined, the placement of AED's in schools should be supported. Further research is needed to determine more affordable ways to disperse AED's into schools and to encourage legislation to cover AED operators under the Good Samaritan laws in all states.

A STUDY OF OPINIONS ON THE NUTRITIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF MIDDLE GRADES

John J. Marshak and R. Dean Wood, The University of Southern Mississippi

             This was part of a study of the opinions of middle grades teachers, administrators, and food service directors about the nutritional environment (defined as support for healthy eating habits) of their schools. This age group was selected because they are the first students who are allowed to make decisions about their eating at school.
             Because this is a topic without much existing research, it was decided to investigate the rudiments of the issue by asking representatives of each of the groups a number of questions. This was done without anticipated responses thus qualifying as qualitative research. Focus groups were selected from across the nation. To facilitate travel, three regional sites were chosen. At each site, nine panel members from each of the three groups participated in a day-long interview. A team of interviewers was selected because of their experience in working with schools at this level. They participated in intensive training with a noted qualitative researcher to develop the questions and the techniques necessary to facilitate participants' responses.
             In the interviews, participants were asked to list elements of their schools' nutritional environment and rate the effect they had on students' healthy eating habits. For those items that made negative contributions, suggestions were solicited on how to overcome them. Only the teachers' opinions are examined here.
             Data analysis consists of a two-pronged approach: first was to determine commonalties in responses between and among the groups; second, an attempt was made to use a computerized qualitative data analysis package.
             The results of this study will be submitted to the United States Department of Agriculture. It is expected that the results will be considered when new federal policy effecting school nutrition and school lunches is developed.

3:00-3:50 p.m. SCHOOL REFORM (Symposium) Salon B

Presider: Jeffery Gorrell, Auburn University

WHAT CHANGES AND WHAT STAYS THE SAME IN SCHOOL REFORM

Jeff Gorrell, Rhonda Porter, and Joe Ross, Auburn University

Overview

             This symposium concentrated on the results of two years of the Learning Connections Project (LCP) a school improvement project operating in five middle schools (urban, rural, and suburban) in the New Orleans area of Louisiana. The goals of the LCP include increasing the variety of teachers' instructional and assessment strategies, helping teachers and principals move toward more learner-centered practices, and facilitating teachers' implementation of classroom practices that reflect the diversity of ways in which students learn. Systematic classroom observations, teacher, principal and student interviews, and field notes and interviews with LCP staff form the basis for each of the following papers. The papers in this symposium addressed the nature and quality of high-implementing teachers in the project, the relationships between improved teaching performance and assessment practices, and the ways in which the schools have engaged in overall change through this project. Time was allotted for audience participation and discussion.

Changing Practices Among Effective Teachers

Jeff Gorrell, Rhonda Porter, and Joe Ross, Auburn University, and Nancy Ares, University of Utah

             The first paper profiled 14 teachers who were designated as high implementers of project goals and concentrates specifically upon a case analysis of seven teachers from the beginnings of the project to the end of the second year. Compared to typical teachers, most high implementation teachers involve students in a greater variety of learning experiences, assess students' progress more broadly, engage students in more meaningful learning, and have a more supportive classroom climate. Classroom climate is positive among virtually all of the high-implementation teachers, and student motivation and engagement are generally high.

Improved Teaching Does Not Mean Improved Assessment

Rhonda Porter, Jeff Gorrell, and Joe Ross, Auburn University, and Nancy Ares, University of Utah

             The second paper detailed relative improvement in teaching effectiveness but limited improvement in assessment practices. In the second year of this project, teachers were encouraged to widen their assessment practices, to find ways to use assessment for deeper understandings of student capabilities and achievement, and to integrate assessment within their more student-centered teaching practice. Most of the teachers expanded the variety of their assessment practices to some extent. However, a few indicated that they did not change their assessment practices. Even the teachers who changed their assessment practices continued to use traditional methods of assessing student achievement (e.g., tests, homework, written assignments) with only limited attention to assessing group projects, cooperative group work, and application activities. This paper discussed the factors that may cause assessment practices to be one of the most resistant factors to change in school reform efforts.

Impact of Principal Support on School Change

Joe Ross, Jeff Gorrell, and Rhonda Porter, Auburn University, and Nancy Ares, University of Utah

             The third paper examined the ways in which leadership support for the LCP influenced the direction of that reform on each of the schools, as well as on individual teachers and students. The paper described the principals' support and role in facilitating a reform effort that involved improving classroom instruction and student assessment in select schools and classrooms. Interviews with principals, teachers, students, and reform specialists indicated that, while principal support is an important component, even in schools where principal support is minimal, dedicated teachers still tended to find ways to make necessary changes in their own classrooms.

3:00-3:50 p.m. TEACHER EDUCATION (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 1

Presider: Rebecca McMahon, University of South Alabama

PRESERVICE TEACHERS' PERSPECTIVES ON CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING AND LEARNING

Indranie Dharmadasa, Chicago State University

             In this study, the perspectives of early childhood preservice teachers about constructivist teaching and learning were examined. In a constructivist classroom the teacher is a facilitator to the child's construction of knowledge rather than a transmitter of knowledge. Past research records that the teacher should carefully and clearly organize the learning environments, provide appropriate materials, present the activities to children individually or in groups, conduct observations, facilitate options, interact appropriately, ask questions and pose problems that stimulate children's thinking, document children's learning, and build relevant theories. Constructivist teaching requires sensitivity to all aspects of a situation in which children structure their experience in its many different spheres.
             How do preservice teachers perceive constructivist teaching? How do they perceive students' learning? These two issues were addressed in this study. The sample consisted of 32 preservice teachers who were enrolled in an early childhood program in a university in a Midwestern state. Data were collected by means of a written assignment and analyzed mainly by using qualitative research procedures.
             From the responses given by the preservice teachers, three major themes directly related to constructivist teaching, and eight themes related to children's learning were identified. Also, two themes were identified related to overall teaching and one compared with direct instruction.
             Results showed that the preservice teachers were more concerned about aspects of students' learning rather than teaching. Most of them appeared to be connecting the theoretical knowledge gained from coursework they have had in college but not projecting their thinking to actual classroom teaching.
             For preservice teachers to handle constructivist teaching effectively with confidence, it is essential for them to develop appropriate knowledge and skills about practices. Participating in programs where they get opportunities to experiment with constructivist theories of teaching may help preservice teachers become competent in constructivist teaching and students learning.

PRESERVICE TEACHERS' PERCEPTIONS OF CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHERS: A MULTI-STAGE, MIXED METHODS ANALYSIS

Lynn C. Minor and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Valdosta State University

             The relatively few studies of the perceptions of preservice teachers concerning attributes of effective teachers have utilized qualitative techniques using small samples. Thus, the present study utilized a four-stage, mixed-methodological analysis to examine preservice teachers' perceptions of characteristics of effective teachers, as well as to investigate whether these perceptions are influenced by educational beliefs (i.e., progressive vs. transmissive). Data for this study were collected from 134 preservice teachers enrolled in several sections of an introductory-level education class for education majors at a large university. Students were given: (1) a questionnaire asking them to identify, to rank, and to define characteristics that they believe excellent teachers possess or demonstrate, and (2) a published survey that identified participants' educational beliefs as either progressive or transmissive.
             A phenomenological analysis of responses (i.e., Stage 1) revealed several characteristics that many of the preservice teachers considered to reflect effective teaching. In order of endorsement level (i.e., Stage 2), the following seven themes emerged from these characteristics: (1) student-centered (55.2%), (2) effective classroom and behavior manager (33.6%), (3) competent instructor (33.6%), (4) ethical (29.9%), (5) enthusiastic about teaching (23.9%), (6) knowledgeable about subject (19.4%), and (7) personable (15.7%). Using the Bonferroni adjustment, a series of chi-square analyses (i.e., Stage 3) revealed no relationship between the seven perception categories of effective teachers and preservice teachers' race, year of study, preferred grade level for teaching, and educational belief. However, statistically significantly more males than did females endorsed teacher characteristics that were associated with being an effective classroom and behavior manager.
             A maximum likelihood factor analysis (i.e., Stage 4) revealed a three-factor solution that explained 55.5% of the total variance. The seven themes, which loaded on the three factors, dealt with instructional and management skills, ethical and well-tempered behavior, and knowledge and enthusiasm of/for subject and student. Implications were discussed.

PERCEIVED RESPONSIBILITY OF PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS FOR THE MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR STUDENTS

Robin K. Henson, University of North Texas

             The role of moral and/or character education has been hotly debated. Many supporters of moral education initiatives have called for teachers to professionally embrace their values in the workplace, for schools to collectively recognize systemic norms, and for teachers to engage with students in discussion/instruction around moral issues. Others have called for teacher educators to prepare novice teachers to appropriately handle the moral issues inherent in teaching. However, research has indicated that impacting the moral beliefs of prospective teachers is a difficult practice at best. Important in this discussion is the degree that preservice teachers feel responsible for the moral development of their students. Without perceived responsibility, competent action is unlikely.
             The current study examined the perceived responsibility of prospective teachers for students' moral development. During a required educational psychology course, 186 preservice teachers completed multiple journal questions to facilitate reflection on course content. One question inquired whether schools are moral environments and to what extent teachers are responsible for the moral development of their students. Thirty responses were randomly and anonymously selected for qualitative analysis. The sample was largely female (86.7%) and Caucasian (86.7%). Most participants were in their last year of teacher education (83.3%) and were pursuing secondary education certification (73.3%). A constant comparative method was used to analyze the narrative responses for emergent themes.
             Several important themes emerged from analysis. Results indicated that most participants felt that schools were inescapably moral environments, but the preservice teachers were inconsistent in their perceived responsibility for impacting student's moral development. While many reported that teachers are responsible, this responsibility was by default because many parents fail to teach morals at home. Teacher-parent unification on moral issues/instruction was almost non-existent. Implications for teacher education were discussed centering on preparing preservice teachers to develop cooperative alliances with parents concerning student moral development.

3:00-3:50 p.m. EXCEPTIONAL EDUCATION (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 2

Presider: Marcia R. O'Neal, The University of Alabama at Birmingham

THE MORE THINGS CHANGE: A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF PLACEMENTS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENTS IN LOUISIANA

Jane Nell Luster, Louisiana State University, and John Durrett, Special School District, Louisiana Department of Education

             There's a saying - the more things change, the more they stay the same. In 1997, a study of Louisiana's special education placement data for 1990-1995 found placements remained essentially unchanged despite vocal school system support of inclusion and implementation of statewide system change initiatives. It was also found that as students aged, placements became more restrictive.
             The current study followed up and extended that study by posing these questions: (1) Has significant change in the number of students in general education, resource, or separate settings occurred from 1990 to 1999? (2) Have the significant differences in placements by age category continued? and (3) Which school systems show a tendency toward more or less inclusion of students and how do they compare on identified variables?
             Data were generated from a statewide student database, using the federal reporting date of December 1 for comparison. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test for significance. For question three, data were ranked using percentage of students in general education and in separate settings.
             Results indicated no significant change occurred in placements by year during the ten-year period, although practical changes were noted. Comparisons for age placements showed significant differences. Three school systems with a high percentage of students in general education and four with a high percentage of students in separate settings were identified. System- level variables associated with placement were identified and discussed.
             There has been change, albeit in smaller increments than presumed or desired. Whether these changes are of actual importance or fluctuations over time is questionable. Age comparisons continue the pattern. Results were discussed about the use and problems inherent in longitudinal data analysis and the study of placement as a variable. School system variables provided indications of factors that may influence the reception and practice of inclusion.

DIFFERENTIATION OF INSTRUCTION FOR DISADVANTAGE GIFTED STUDENTS: A SYSTEMIC CHANGE MODEL

Deborah J Abell, Morehead State University

             It is often difficult to distinguish between truly gifted children and children whose background has been so enriched that they perform well on standardized measurements of intelligence and achievement. On the other hand, children from economically deprived backgrounds whose parents were not very successful in school themselves often do not have the opportunity to learn how to perform academically in a way that will ensure success in school and inclusion in a gifted/talented (GT) program. In order to try to not miss including at-risk students in GT programming, three schools have started a program designed to promote systemic changes in the way teachers teach to include differentiation of instruction in the regular classroom setting.
             This study conducted teaching observations and analyzed surveys of students, parents, and teachers in three middle schools in three Kentucky school districts to determine whether a combination of sustained school-wide professional development and in-depth training of a smaller cadre of teachers is an effective model for effecting changes in teaching behavior. The school-wide professional development was found to be effective in providing "awareness" level instruction to teachers and sensitizing them to the needs of disadvantaged gifted students. However, the ongoing training provided to a cadre of teachers seeking gifted education teaching certification was found to be key to systemic change at each of the three schools. Teachers in the buildings turned to the cadre teachers to help them implement the practices they had learned in the professional development and to help them problem-solve when the practices did not work smoothly.
             A descriptive analysis of parent, student and teacher surveys revealed systemic changes are taking place in identification practices and differentiation of instruction. A comprehensive review of the literature of gifted education for the economically disadvantaged and suggestions for future research were included.

TEAM TEACHING: INTEGRATION OF SPECIAL NEEDS STUDENTS TO REGULAR CLASSROOMS

Dana Lynn Key, The University of Alabama

             This study described the experiences and evolution of three teacher interns during the internship placement with regard to: (1) their effectiveness in teaching inclusion students, (2) the opportunities for practicing effective strategies and pedagogical skills, (3) the challenges and rewards of team teaching, and (4) needs for professional development. The study was designed by the researcher to direct those interns toward a more effective internship and transition to the first year of teaching.
             These interns were participants in a phenomenological qualitative study to determine and explore ways in which teacher educators could most effectively plan and implement curricula and internship experiences to best serve the special needs students, classroom teachers, and teacher interns. The researcher collected data from January through April from focus groups, interviews, and document analysis. There were checks for triangulation of data, and peer debriefing, and member checks to assure validity and reliability. The researcher produced extensive field notes during observations and evaluations.
             As the new millennium begins, teachers and teacher educators are searching for ways to better address and serve the diversity of students' needs and abilities. Standards for learning in education have recommended that teachers reevaluate how they teach, how students learn, what should be taught and to whom. By combining students of all backgrounds into a curriculum that has been designed and is conducted by several experienced professionals from diverse specialties, students as well as teachers can benefit from individual differences rather than seeing those differences as a disadvantage.
             This study did not have implications for every college of education, classroom, intern, or teacher; however, it did reveal insight into the world of the inclusion classroom experience of teachers and special needs students.

3:00-3:50 p.m. STATISTICS (Training Session) Meeting Room 5

USING SPSS TO CONDUCT MULTIPLE REGRESSION: AN OVERVIEW

Anthony J. Guarino and Jerry Mathews, Auburn University

             This introductory workshop was designed to provide a basic understanding of multiple regression (MR) procedures. Participants learned that MR is an extremely flexible procedure that can be utilized in both experimental and non-experimental research. Emphasis was on the conceptual application of MR (there was a minimal emphasis on the mathematical derivation of the formulas). This workshop was for any researcher who would like an introduction or a refresher course in basic multiple regression research methods.
             Topics included: (1) detecting outliers and their influence on coefficients, (2) interpreting R and R Square, (3) understanding the differences between the B-weights and the Beta-weights, (4) comprehending the differences between the Part and Partial Coefficient, and (5) appreciating the theoretical differences in a simultaneous, stepwise, and a hierarchical analysis.