7:30-8:45 a.m. NEW MEMBER/GRADUATE STUDENT BREAKFAST Salon C

9:00-9:50 a.m. HIGHER EDUCATION (Discussion Session) Salon A

Presider: Vicki Wilson, Wilmington College

WEB-BASED LEARNING: THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNER ACHIEVEMENT AND FACULTY TIME DEMANDS

Steven G. Lesh, Southwest Baptist University, and Lary Rampp, RidgeCrest Learning

             The first purpose was to compare the pre- and post-course achievement scores in a web-based college course when directly compared to an identical lecture based course. The second purpose was to compare the time expenditure by the instructor to develop and deliver the learning experiences in both courses.
             Technological enhancements over the past decade have increased the feasibility and practicality of delivering learning at a distance. Successful outcomes have been identified in the literature-related to the learners reaction to and achievement in web-based learning environments. Few scholarly investigations exist documenting the impact on faculty time involvement to produce these courses. Little evidence is provided making a clear delineation of the actual time investment for an instructor to develop and deliver a web-based course when compared to a more traditional lecture-based model of instruction.
             The investigative methodology consisted of two self-selected courses with a pretest and posttest design. Instructor time was cataloged from the onset of the design of the courses to the completion of each course. Matched pairs t-tests were utilized to determine significant differences in pre- and posttest scores.
             Significant data were observed demonstrating enhanced learning of the content for both courses with no significant differences between the achievement levels of the two courses. Regarding the faculty time investment to develop, deliver, and complete each course, it was found that the instructor spent 10 clock hours more to complete the lecture-based version of the course (73.75 clock hours) when compared to the web-based version of the course (63.17 clock hours) during the same academic semester.
             Future research is needed identifying the characteristics of the learners' self selecting web-based education, time demands of faculty in preparing web-based learning experiences, and instructional design elements that lead to positive learning outcomes.

STATISTICS: ON CAMPUS VS. ON-LINE

Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas, Little Rock (UALR)

             The study compared electronic mail, traditional, and combination approaches for teaching graduate introductory statistics classes. Approaches presented in the literature recently might be loosely categorized as content/conceptual, use of manipulatives, or use of computer software. The electronic course that was the focus of this study was offered in the 1995-1999 fall terms. There were 23 participants in the electronic classes, 69 in the traditional classes, and 27 in both groups, with a majority of white females. Multiple-choice pretests and posttests were given. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was run using posttest scores as the response variable and pretest scores as the covariate. The ANCOVA technique involves features of both the analysis of variance and regression, so assumptions for both were tested. Random selection was not possible since participation in any version of the course was optional. Normality and homoscedasticity across all groups were verified using the Omnibus Normality of Residuals and Modified-Levene Equal-Variance tests. Homogeneity of regression was observed in scatterplots of pretest scores versus posttest scores and their trend lines, by treatment and control groups. Therefore, the assumptions required for ANCOVA seemed to be reasonably well met. The test indicated that the null hypothesis of no statistically significant difference among the traditional (adjusted mean of 6.82, n=69), electronic (adjusted mean of 7.00, n=23), and both traditional and electronic (adjusted mean of 7.01, n=27) classes' scores could not be rejected at the 0.05 level [F(2,115)=0.08, p=0.92], with an effect size of f = 0, a negligible effect, according to Cohen. It is concluded, then, that offering the course through electronic mail or a combination of electronic mail and the traditional approach did not appear to hinder the performance of the students to the extent measured by the multiple-choice tests.

FACULTY ATTITUDES AND UNDERSTANDINGS ABOUT ONLINE LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES

Renee E. Weiss, The University of Memphis, and Dave S. Knowlton and Heather M. Knowlton, Crichton College

             Educational futurists agree that online education will proliferate. The question is no longer if faculty will use online technologies in their teaching; the question is how online technologies will impact higher education pedagogy. Given the prominence of online technologies, faculty members must understand "best practices" of online teaching. For example, faculty should use online technologies: (1) to allow multiple perspectives to be heard, (2) to create an environment where students can asynchronously and efficiently interact with course materials and classmates, (3) to appeal to multiple learning styles, thus improving the potential for student learning, (4) to help students develop skills in critical thinking, and (5) to train students for a rapidly-changing informational environment.
             The success of a faculty member's ability to use online technology in these theoretically sound ways is based on their preconceived ideas. Therefore, future faculty development activities should consider faculty understandings and attitudes. The purpose of this exploratory case study was to use hermeneutic, co-constructed interpretation of faculty perceptions about online learning to develop a stronger model of faculty development.
             Analysis was based on data collected in our roles as faculty development specialists and included informal interviews with faculty and administration, one-on-one consulting with faculty members who are designing online courses, and workshop and seminar evaluations from faculty. Findings indicated that many faculty members see the need for the inclusion of online technology, but they do not understand the pedagogical shift necessary for making online classrooms successful. Other faculty members are concerned that the use of online technologies will undermine their own authority and expertise.

9:00-9:50 a.m. SCHOOL VIOLENCE (Discussion Session) Salon B

Presider: Beverly Klecker, Kentucky Department of Education

DEVELOPMENT OF A MEASURE OF TEACHERS' ATTITUDES TOWARD SCHOOL VIOLENCE

Barbara L. White, University of Southern Mississippi, and Larry G. Daniel, University of North Florida

             The purposes of the present study were: (1) to devise and provide validity and reliability data for scores on an instrument measuring teachers' attitudes toward school violence and (2) to develop "importance" ratings of the items based on data from teachers in a high school that had experienced a highly publicized violent episode. Two independent samples were utilized. Based on factor analytic manipulation of data from Sample 1 (N = 370 education graduate students), four factors were extracted representing meaningful subscales: (1) causes of school violence, (2) responses to school violence, (3) profile of the violent student, and (4) extent of violence. Reliability coefficients for scores on the four subscales ranged from .69 to .90. Based on data from Sample 2 (N = 38 teachers), item scores were analyzed to determine which items within the four subscales were rated as most highly important by the participants. Specifically, mean item scores in either the "agree" or the "strongly agree" range for the 38 participants were utilized to designate primary concerns.
             Based on this importance threshold, the perceived primary causes of school violence were centered about individual student responsibility, lack of respect for life, decline in moral values, and influence of drugs, television, and radio. Regarding responses to violence, participants were most favorable toward items related to conflict management strategies. In their ratings of items on the profile of the violent student subscale, participants noted that factors related to the inability to control anger, low self esteem, desensitized attitude toward violence, and disregard for human life were characteristic of violent students. Finally, as regards the extent of violence, the sample rated almost all of the items of this type high, including items related to: (1) perceived increase of violence in schools, the media, and society, and (2) the perception that violence is more highly publicized than in times past.

STRUCTURAL VIOLENCE: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING VIOLENCE AMONG AFRICAN AMERICAN UNDERCLASS YOUTH

Ivan E Watts, Auburn University

             The purpose of this essay was to explicate and evaluate some of the current issues surrounding violence, with a special emphasis on violence committed by African American Underclass Youth (AAUY). It was also to contribute to American educational history in general, but more specifically, the growing body of knowledge on African American youth violence. The researcher utilized the conceptual framework of Johan Galtung's structural violence as a method of analyzing youth violence among African Americans. Galtung refers to the type of violence where there is an actor who commits the violence as personal or direct, and to violence where there is no such actor as structural or indirect (Galtung, 1969). In the first case, the violence can be traced to a particular person; in the second case, tracking the source of violence is more covaluded. In this situation there may not be any person who directly harms another, yet the violence is built into the structure and shows up as unequal power and consequently as unequal life chances (Galtung, 1969). Once Galtung's theory has been explicated, the researcher gave an example of structural violence by utilizing Frantz Fanon, Paulo Freire, and Ania Loomba's theory of colonization to further explain violence committed by young African Americans.
             Some descriptive statistics on crimes committed by African Americans were given to help illustrate the point that colonization is a form of structural violence. The paper was concluded by proposing that we begin to reexamine the structures that African Americans and the poor interact, in which we begin to and address and analyze the structures and conditions that these people live in, subsequently, focusing on bad structures instead of incorrigible youth.

SCHOOL VIOLENCE: A SURVEY SINCE LITTLETON

Jean Newman Clark and Alvah E. Clark, Jr., University of South Alabama

             The study is a small national survey of school violence in the past two years as reported by school counselors. Categories in the anonymous survey include nine acts of violence and three categories of possession related to school violence. Other areas addressed include: (1) presence of a crisis management plan or team, (2) feedback related to any changes or reactions particularly following the events in Littleton, Colorado, (3) assessment of sense of danger among faculty, school, and community, and (4) issues related to school violence.
             The survey was mailed to a sample of 500 counselors across the United States, two weeks after the shootings in Littleton, Colorado. The number sent to each state was in proportion to the number of school districts per state. A representative number of elementary, middle, and high school counselors were surveyed. Half of the surveys were sent to the principal, with a cover letter requesting that the principal ask the counselor to complete the survey. The other half were sent directly to the school counselors.
             Forty-six of the surveys were returned marked "undeliverable." Of the subsequent 454 surveys, 172 (38%) responses were returned. Because there was no tracking, no second mailings, and no other follow-up (to maintain anonymity), these responses were considered usable. Categorical analysis by gender, state, and level were performed to examine trends.
             Chi-square analysis showed that there was significance in possession of arms, crisis planning, and increase in apprehension among students and faculty. The data were discussed, along with a survey of interventions and strategies that had been developed and implemented in the past two years. A review of literature offered a sense of perspective related to future trends.

9:00-9:50 a.m. EARLY CHILDHOOD (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 1

Presider: Jack Klotz, The University of Southern Mississippi

COLLABORATIVE PLANNING AND DECISION MAKING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: A QUALITATIVE STUDY OF CONTEMPORARY TEAM TEACHING

John F. Riley, The University of Montevallo

             This study is the second phase of a longitudinal case study of collaborative planning and decision making in a grade-level team of elementary teachers. The purpose of this phase of the study was to examine the evolution of the planning and decision-making processes of an elementary grade-level team during planning meetings and the perceptions of team members regarding the process and their role in it.
             Nine elementary teachers in a suburban school district in the Mid-South participated in this study. Three were first-year teachers, and the others ranged in experience from one to six years. One teacher was African American, the others were Caucasian. Six of the nine teachers on the team were in their first or second year of membership on this team.
             The researcher observed the teachers during their regular team planning meetings, which were Monday afternoons after school for curriculum planning and Wednesday mornings during the students' physical education period for team business. The team captain conducted both of these meetings.
             During these meetings, the researcher compiled field notes on discussion topics and actions toward consensus and decision making. The researcher also interviewed team members with regard to their perceptions of team teaching in general, the functioning of this team in particular, their role in shared decision making, and their perceptions of the evolving roles of team members due to changes in personnel. Teachers on this team participated in interviews of prospective teachers for the team, and they also responded to questions regarding their participation in this process.
These data provided a rich source for analysis. Preliminary findings indicated a clear perception that induction for beginning teachers is strengthened through this type of teaming. Relatively inexperienced teachers seemed to modify their perceptions of their roles as teachers and team members and attributed this change to their participation in teaming.

HEAD START TEACHERS' CHARACTERISTICS AND ATTITUDES AS PREDICTORS OF THEIR CURRICULAR FOCUS

Huey-Ling F. Lin, Alabama State University, and Jeffrey Gorrell, Auburn University

             This study was designed to examine key relationships among Head Start teachers' perceptions of children's readiness for school, class and classroom organization and resources, self-reported instructional activities, curricular focus and evaluation methods, and the preparation/qualifications of Head Start teachers.
             The National Center for Educational Statistics questionnaires for kindergarten teachers were adapted for distribution to Head Start teachers (N = 361) who are employed by center-based programs of Head Start grantees in seven counties in South-Central Alabama. In this study, a combination of statistical analyses (exploratory factor analysis, general linear model and correlational analysis) was used for comparing a broad range of cases, and variables were used to answer the following questions: (1) What are the current practices and curricular focus in these Head Start settings? (2) To what extent do Head Start teachers' perceptions about readiness influence their instructional approaches? and (3) To what extent do Head Start teachers with different characteristics (gender, age, ethnicity, teaching experience, educational level, college courses taken, and type of teaching certification) differ in their conceptions about readiness and in their instructional practices?
             By answering these questions, the study led to the presentation of a testable model of interrelationships among important variables and recommendations for the design of Head Start teacher education programs. Also, the results of this study can be used to develop a particular set of instructional knowledge components for Head Start teachers, enabling schools and colleges of education to address early childhood teacher education for Head Start teachers.

9:00-9:50 a.m. STATISTICS (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 2

Presider: Randy Parker, Louisiana Tech University

SACRIFICING RELIABILITY AND EXALTING SAMPLING ERROR AT THE ALTAR OF PARSIMONY: SOME CAUTIONS CONCERNING SHORT FORM TEST DEVELOPMENT

Robin K. Henson, University of North Texas

             The principle of parsimony is a time-honored tradition in science. The principle holds that, given two seemingly equally valid explanations for a phenomenon, the most straightforward or simple explanation is most likely replicable in future events. In research, the goal of parsimony often manifests itself in researcher's attempts to explain the most (e.g., perhaps the most variance between two sets of variables) with the fewest number of variables (e.g., perhaps the fewest predictors).
             Test development is directly impacted by parsimony issues. Often, test developers begin with large sets of possible items and then narrow the items through a variety of procedures, most commonly factor and reliability analyses. Such efforts are driven by the need for tests to be short enough to be manageable while retaining appropriate psychometric properties. However, item elimination often comes at the price of reduced score reliability because the number of items on a test impacts classical reliability estimates. Furthermore, when factor analyses are conducted on non-normative samples, the obtained factor structure may be unique to the current sample due to capitalization on sampling error. If items are subsequently deleted because of this sample dependent factor structure, the test developer may be sacrificing score reliability and what may otherwise be a good test item.
             The purpose of the paper was to highlight some cautions when seeking to develop short-form versions of tests. Several points were made: (1) score reliability is, among other things, directly impacted by the characteristics of the sample and testing conditions, (2) sampling error directly influences reliability and factor structure of scores, and (3) caution should be used when developing short forms of tests when using non-normative samples. To make the discussion concrete, real-world data were used to illustrate the sample dependency of factor structure and score reliability.

SELF-EFFICACY TEACHING AND KNOWLEDGE INSTRUMENT FOR SCIENCE TEACHERS (SETAKIST): A PROPOSAL FOR A NEW EFFICACY INSTRUMENT

J. Kyle Roberts, Baylor College of Medicine

             Albert Bandura (1977a, 1997) presented self-efficacy as a mechanism of behavioral change and self-regulation in his social cognitive theory. Bandura proposed that efficacy beliefs were powerful predictors of behavior because they were ultimately self-referent in nature and directed toward specific tasks. The predictive power of efficacy beliefs has been borne out in the research (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, & Hoy, 1998).
             To further the study of teacher efficacy, Gibson and Dembo (1984) developed the Teacher Efficacy Scale (TES) to two efficacy constructs that they defined as personal teaching efficacy and outcome expectancy. The TES was the first attempt to develop an empirical data collection instrument to tap into this potentially powerful variable in teachers.
             Later, Riggs and Enochs (1990) developed the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI). Based on the TES, the STEBI also consisted of two dimensions, called personal science teaching efficacy (PTSE) and science teaching outcome expectancy (STOE).
             Recently, however, the outcome expectancy dimension of teacher efficacy (general teaching efficacy in the TES; STOE in the STEBI) has come into question. In particular, Tschannen-Moran et al. (1998) have argued that this dimension is a measure of external locus of control, as opposed to outcome expectancy. Several researchers support this conclusion (Henson & Vacca-Haase, in press; Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Coladarci & Fink, 1995).
             This paper introduced a new self-efficacy instrument with confirmatory factor analysis results from 300+ teachers. Building from previous research on the STEBI (Roberts, Henson, Tharp, & Moreno, in press) the new instrument (SETAKIST) hypothesizes that science-teacher self-efficacy exists in two constructs: (1) teaching efficacy and (2) pedagogical content knowledge efficacy. The second factor in this instrument is argued from and based largely on the work of Lee Shulman (1986; 1987; 1999).

A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE TEACHER DISCIPLINE EFFICACY SCALE

Rebecca McMahon, University of South Alabama, and Richard Kazelskis and Carolyn Reeves-Kazelskis, University of Southern Mississippi

             The Teacher Discipline Efficacy Scale (TDES) was designed to measure personal and general teacher efficacy for disciplining students. A confirmatory factor analysis of the two- factor model was carried out using a sample of 205 junior- and senior-level preservice teacher education students. Goodness-of-fit measures did not suggest a good fit for the two factor model. The resulting chi-square based on 34 degrees of freedom was 181.62 (p<.001), the ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom was high (5.34), and the root mean square error of approximation was also high (0.140).
             Because the proposed two-factor model did not provide satisfactory fit, the item responses were subjected to an exploratory factor analysis. A principal components analysis was used. The scree test and the eigenvalue greater than 1.0 criterion suggested two to four factors. Two, three, and four factor solutions were rotated using both orthogonal and oblique rotations. Based on factor interpretations and simple structure considerations, the two-factor oblique solution was deemed the most appropriate. The resulting factors were labeled self efficacy and external influences.

9:00-10:50 a.m. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (Training Session) Meeting Room 5

SO, YOU WANT A JOB IN ACADEMIA?: USEFUL QUESTIONS, INFORMATION, AND SKILLS FOR "THE SEARCH"

Beth H. Hensley and Sherri Horner, The University of Memphis; Sean Forbes, Auburn University; Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Valdosta State University; and Gail H. Weems, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale

             Many graduate students and new graduates of doctoral programs have found themselves unprepared for the next step of their journey - finding a fulfilling academic position. Although the university or college setting looked familiar, the new role of job seeker frequently offered choices that were unexpected, confusing, frustrating, and, at times, immobilizing. The five panelists were recent academic job-seekers who examined relevant literature and their own experiences to facilitate a discussion of questions, information, and skills that could produce a successful outcome for others in the academic job search process.
             The training session began with attendees having the opportunity to briefly share where they are in the job search process and a major concern or question they would like addressed during the training session. A master list of participant issues was developed for reference and use throughout the training session. Each panelist presented an overview of one of the five major topics.
             The five major topic areas were: (1) the curriculum vita, (2) identifying potential positions, ( 3) the application materials, (4) the interview process, and (5) assessment and follow-up. As each of the five topics was initially presented, all of the panelists had an opportunity to contribute relevant experiences and insights.
             Panelists shared various models of curriculum vitaes and discussed tailoring the vita to the position. Topics related to identifying potential positions included electronic bulletin boards, networking, and professional publications and organizations. Copies of current positions in the MSERA employment book were shared with each participant along with an analysis of what the wording of a job ad or posting can tell a job-seeker. Various models of cover letters were reviewed, and there was a discussion of selecting references and how to obtain letters of reference that can make a difference.
             The area of interviewing included preparing for telephone and face-to-face interviews, typical questions that will be asked, and questions the interviewee should ask. Mock interviews were conducted to demonstrate valuable techniques and common problems. The topic of evaluation included: (1) assessing one's own performance and qualifications, (2) assessing the position including one's potential colleagues, administration, physical setting, and professional opportunities, and (3) follow-up negotiations if an appointment is offered.
             The training session concluded with the participants breaking into five small group sessions led by one of the panelists for more specific discussion of the topic areas. With consent, a master list of participant names, addresses, telephone numbers, and email addresses was shared with each attendee for ongoing support and networking.