2:00-2:50 p.m. HIGHER EDUCATION (Discussion Session) Salon A

Presider: Linda Cornelious, Mississippi State University

STATISTICS FINAL EXAM SCORES AND COMPLETION TIMES

Robert L. Kennedy, University of Arkansas, Little Rock

             The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the scores students earned on their statistics finals with the number of minutes the students required to complete the exams. In a review of the literature, Bridges noted a growing interest in the relationship between achievement test performance and order of finish as well as the time required, but observed that all of the studies reviewed were based on single administrations of examinations. To extend the range of interest from a single test to a course-based series, data generated from three multiple-choice introductory psychology examinations were examined. Little evidence was found to support either linear or nonlinear relationships between performance and order of finish or time required.
             In the present study, the tests comprised two parts: mechanical calculations of statistics and interpretations of printouts. The amount of time allowed the students to complete the tests was unlimited, ranging from 69 to 305 minutes. Eight graduate-level basic statistics classes from the fall terms, 1996-1999, were involved in the study and their pooled group size for which there was complete data was 97, including 69 females and 28 males. The assumption of normality was not consistently met, so Spearman correlations were calculated: (1) -0.30 for females (p=0.01); (2) 0.24 for males (p=0.22); and (3) -0.15 overall (p=0.14). The effect sizes for r, according to Cohen, were medium for the females and small for the males and overall. That is, for the female students in this study, those who finished more quickly tended to perform better. For males, those who completed the tests quickly did not necessarily do better than those who took greater amounts of time, although there was a small tendency for those who took more time to perform better. Overall, the relationship was minimal.

TREATMENT BY APTITUDE INTERACTIONS AS A MEDIATOR OF GROUP PERFORMANCE IN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY COURSES

Kathleen M. Collins, Monmouth University, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Valdosta State University

             Recently, there has been an increase in the number of research methodology instructors who utilize cooperative learning techniques in their courses (Onwuegbuzie & DaRos, in press). Unfortunately, little is known about the efficacy of this methodology in these classes (Onwuegbuzie, in press).
             Debate exists about how to compose cooperative groups. Whereas some researchers advocate that homogeneous groups be formed, others recommend heterogeneous groups (Dalton & Kuhn, 1998). Interestingly, using qualitative techniques, Onwuegbuzie and DaRos (in press) found that the most heterogeneous groups tended not to function as well as did homogeneous groups. However, this finding has not been tested empirically in research methodology courses.
             Consequently, the purpose of this investigation was to determine whether: (1) groups with the highest mean levels of knowledge of the research process, as measured via mean midterm and final examination scores, produce the best cooperative learning projects, as measured by the quality of research article critiques and proposals, (2) degree of heterogeneity is related to the quality of these group projects, and (3) size of the group is related to quality of output produced.
             Participants were 275 graduate students enrolled in several sections of an introductory-level educational research course over a three-year period. These students (n = 275) formed 70 groups ranging in size from two to seven (M = 3.99, SD = 1.27). Using group as the unit of analysis revealed a small-to-moderate positive relationship between the mean midterm and final examination scores and scores on the article critiques and proposals--suggesting a "Matthew Effect," with respect to group outcomes. A positive relationship was found between degree of group heterogeneity at the midterm level and scores on the projects. However, no relationship was noted between group size and group performance. Interestingly, a treatment (i.e., group heterogeneity level) x aptitude (i.e., mean mid-term group performance) was found with respect to article critiques.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRITICAL THINKING AND PERFORMANCE IN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY COURSES

Kathleen M. Collins, Monmouth University, and Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, Valdosta State University

             Facione, Facione, Blohm, Howard, and Giancario (1998) identified the following five components of critical thinking skills: (1) analysis, (2) evaluation, (3) inference, (4) deductive reasoning, and(5) inductive reasoning. As noted by Facione et al., an individual uses these cognitive skills interactively to determine selectively what to believe and what actions to take in order to form a purposeful judgment. Many of these skills have been identified as important in interpreting and applying research methodology at the graduate level (Onwuegbuzie, 1997). However, there is limited empirical evidence assessing the degree that critical thinking skills influence student performance in research methodology courses. This presentation reported results of an investigation designed to assess the relation between student achievement, as measured by their ability to interpret and apply research methodology, and their critical thinking skills.
             Participants were 103 graduate students from various disciplines, enrolled in six sections of an introductory-level educational research course at a southeastern university. Subjects were administered the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (CCTST), a 34-item, multiple-choice test that targets core critical thinking skills regarded to be essential elements in a college education. Conceptual knowledge, which involved students' knowledge of research concepts, methodologies, and applications, was measured via comprehensive written midterm and final examinations. The examinations consisted of open-ended questions, involving items that required knowledge of the research process.
             A series of Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficients, using the Bonferroni adjustment, revealed that midterm and final exam scores were positively related to overall critical thinking skills. Additionally, canonical correlation analyses indicated that: (1) both achievement scores were related to analysis, evaluation, and inference CCTST subscales; and (2) both achievement scores were related to inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning subscales. Effect sizes pertaining to both canonical correlation coefficients were large. Implications were discussed in the context of instructional practices and performance outcomes of graduate students.

2:00-2:50 p.m. PREPARATION FOR EMPLOYMENT (Discussion Session) Salon B

Presider: Sean Forbes, Auburn University

EFFECTS OF INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING ON PERFORMANCE IN MANUFACTURING COMPANIES

J. Fred Williams and Jacquelyn Robinson, Auburn University

             Most industrial managers are not aware of an effective way to relate education and training costs to employee performance. This study evaluated the relationship between company investment in the education and training of employees, and performance. A research hypothesis was posited that: "Increases in company investment in employee education and training will be accompanied by corresponding increases in the level of performance in each area studied."
             A survey instrument consisting of 65 questions was designed and developed to gather investment and performance information covering the subject areas of: (1) investment in education and training, (2) productivity, (3) quality, and (4) safety.
             This survey instrument was mailed to top managers of 250 selected companies; 133 of these were returned, and 108 were complete and usable, for a usable return rate of 43%. Data were gathered from manufacturing companies in 14 northeast Alabama and nine northwest Georgia counties. Companies were selected at random from manufacturing directories for the respective state and counties.
             Data were analyzed using regression and multivariate analysis. Performance data from productivity, quality, and safety, identified as dependent variables, were regressed against the independent variable of investment data for education and training. Analysis of the data did not appear to support the research hypothesis, but did indicate several weaknesses in the industry regarding understanding, planning, and measuring the contribution of education and training to the company's bottom line. The study also revealed a need for more empirical research in the area of measuring the results of training and the ability to express results about the return on investment.

SCHOOL-TO-CAREER: EMPLOYER-EMPLOYEE SEARCH STRATEGIES

Herbert R. Horne and Jacquelyn P. Robinson-Horne, Auburn University

             Discussions with management personnel from small- to mid-sized technically- oriented manufacturing industries revealed a pattern of concern with problems experienced in locating, hiring, training, and retaining entry-level workers. Low unemployment rates exacerbated the problem of acquiring and retaining the quality workforce needed to be competitive in business. Difficulty in meeting workforce needs hampered the economic development of the region by (1) slowing expansion of existing businesses, (2) deterring relocation of businesses to the area, and (3) restricting new business start-up. A city economic development office funded this research project to better understand the processes in which: (1) industries seek, acquire and train new-hire entry-level workers, and (2) prospective workers seek and find entry-level jobs.
             Both quantitative and qualitative methodology were employed in this study . The qualitative phase consisted of: (1) interviews with manufacturers and (2) focus group interviews with workers. Twenty-five companies located in eight counties employing 16,973 employees participated. From interviews, common threads were identified and analyzed. Reinterviews were used to clarify points and to follow up on questions derived from earlier interviews. A survey questionnaire was developed and administered to a small sample for validation, then revised and administered to a manufacturers and employees. Fourteen companies with approximately 1,200 production workers participated in the survey. The report should enable businesses and industries to more effectively locate, hire and train workers, assist schools and employment counselors to prepare and advise job seekers, and assist planners and developers to support local and new businesses and industries in meeting their workforce needs.

TEACHING PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS TO TRANSITION-AGE STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Steven A. Crites and Anthony J. Guarino, Auburn University

             The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a program designed to teach a four-step, problem-solving strategy to increase social interactions with supervisors and coworkers. Studies have shown that workers with disabilities lose their jobs as a result of inadequate social skills at least as often as a result of inability to perform specific job tasks. Many experts suggest the goal of social-skills training should focus on increasing social competence and problem solving skills (Huang & Cuvo, 1997; McCuller, Moore, and Salzberg, 1992; Quinn, Sherman, Sheldon, Quinn, & Harchik, 1992).
             The participants for this study were selected from a group of students with mild to moderate learning and behavior disabilities from area schools. The study used a multiple baseline, single-subject design across participants. During the training phase, students were taught a four-step problem solving procedure (Adapted from Foss & Vihauer's, WORKING II, l988). The training program combined the use of videotaped scenarios (each depicting a problem situation), role-play, discussion, and behavior rehearsal to teach the problem solving strategy. Lessons centered on interactions with both supervisors and co-workers. Participants were read a scenario and asked to solve the problem (just as in the baseline phase). Data were collected on the strategy used to solve the problem and the quality of the solution. Probe data were graphed and analysis made by visual inspection.
Upon completion of the training phase, students were asked to retake the TICE. Pre- and posttest scores were analyzed by one-way repeated-measures analysis of variance.

2:00-2:50 p.m. TEACHER EDUCATION (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 1

Presider: Dianne Sawyer, Tullahoma (AL) High School

A TECHNOLOGY "GENDER DIVIDE": PERCEIVED SKILL AND FRUSTRATION LEVELS AMONG FEMALE PRESERVICE TEACHERS

John F. Bauer, The University of Memphis

             The purpose of the study was to examine female preservice teachers perceptions of gender differences in the learning and use of computer technology, as well as to provide insight into attitudes that might shape their future performance in classroom situations.
             The research questions were: (1) How do female preservice teachers compare themselves with males with regard to computer technology? (2) At what skill levels do female preservice teachers rate themselves with regard to various educational technology applications? (3) How do levels of self-esteem equate with frustration when female preservice teachers work with technology? and (4) How do female preservice teachers rate the effectiveness of the technology training in their teacher education program?
             The primary source of data collection was a 35-item survey/questionnaire administered in the College of Education at a large urban university. Of the 45 preservice teachers who responded, 30 were chosen at random for the analysis. This data were analyzed using quantitative methods. An open-ended question and a focused interview were analyzed using qualitative methods.
             The findings produced four identifiable, if somewhat overlapping, themes that relate to the purpose of the study: (1) a gender bias on the part of the females, (2) low self-esteem with computer technology accompanied by evidence of frustration, (3) medium enthusiasm and competency levels in various educational technology programs, and (4) opinions expressing weakness in the technology training received from Teacher Education programs
             Important implications were in the field of elementary education, where the vast majority of teachers are female. Their reluctance to use technology in the classroom could undermine efforts to teach important computer skills to their students and help the U.S. keep pace with the rest of the technology world. Will schools moving toward a technology-centered curriculum be able to find suitably trained teachers willing to put technology in use in the classroom?

A SURVEY OF TEACHER EDUCATION STUDENTS' ATTITUDES TOWARD COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY: A PILOT STUDY

David L Naylor, James C. Mainord, and Kathleen R. Atkins, University of Central Arkansas; James E. Whorton, University of Southern Mississippi; and Robert E. Fowler, College of Charleston

             Few people question the desirability or efficacy of applying computer technology to K-12 education. Indeed, most states now expect K-12 teachers to possess minimal competencies in applying computer technology to teaching. Colleges and universities involved in teacher preparation, either because of state mandates or directives from accrediting agencies, such as NCATE (or both), are actively addressing the issues. Individual courses or infusion/integration approaches are being utilized to prepare teachers in the application of computer and related technologies to K-12 teaching. Both have their advantages, and it was not the intent of this study to champion either strategy. The purpose of this study, however, was to illustrate the importance of attitude in skill acquisition, particularly in the area of computer technology, to teaching in the K-12 classroom.
             A questionnaire centering on attitudes toward computer technology was administered to 313 teacher education students at three different southern universities. The subjects were either working toward teacher certification or beginning students in the field of education. All students were enrolled in either an "Introduction to Special Education" or "Introduction to Computer Technology" course. The former was required for all teacher education students, and the latter was required or taken by most teacher education students. In addition to demographic characteristics, the questionnaire consisted of 15 questions centering on attitudes toward computer technology. Students responded to the items using a modified Likert scale, and SPSS for windows (version 8) was used for generating descriptive data. Results were presented in tabular form.
             The findings of the study suggested that student attitudes have important implications for teacher training and skill acquisition in computer technology.

USING TECHNOLOGY TO CERTIFY SECONDARY TEACHERS: THE ALTERNATIVE CERTIFICATION PROJECT

Randy Parker, Louisiana Tech University

             Despite the best efforts of colleges of education and state departments, there continues to be a shortage of certified teachers, particularly in rural or at-risk school settings. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of an alternative certification program for secondary teachers with a particular emphasis on rural school districts. Thirty uncertified secondary teachers currently teaching in public school systems in a southern state were identified through collaboration between the university, school administrators, and interested participants. Participants held a bachelor's degree in a content area, agreed to complete 27 hours of modular coursework, and were employed for the next year by their school districts. Districts agreed to provide on-site mentors, release time, and continued collaboration with program participants. The university provided instruction through campus courses, five compressed video sites, email, online mentors, and other technologies.
             Courses were delivered as Integrated Professional Development Modules designed to address the knowledge base and performance skills needed to meet the Intern Evaluation Program adopted by the state. Participants also received PRAXIS preparation workshops, weekly mentoring sessions, and assistance in developing a professional portfolio.
             As a result of the project, all participants passed all parts of the PRAXIS and successfully completed all components of the Intern Evaluation Program. Data also indicated that participants preferred the compressed video format to on-campus courses, made regular use of the electronic mentors via email, and utilized the Praxis workshops. Less encouraging was the confusion over the completion of professional portfolios and the occasional unavailability of on- site mentors. Nevertheless, the project met its goal of increasing the number of certified secondary teachers. Other school districts and universities can use this project as a model to integrate technology into the preparation of alternatively certified teachers.

2:00-2:50 p.m. INSTRUCTION (Discussion Session) Meeting Room 2

Presider: Connie Jones-Wade, Middle Tennessee State University

USE OF APPROPRIATE METACOGNITION TEACHING APPROACHES FOR A TECHNOLOGY BASED CLASSROOM

Lary C Rampp, RidgeCrest Learning, Inc., and Steven G. Lesh, Southwest Baptist University

             The classroom of tomorrow is available today. This technologically-enhanced classroom no longer has overhead projectors, chalk boards, or film projectors. This classroom has Internet connections, videos, graphics, and integrated technological personations. The skills needed to guide a teacher in the appropriate and effective use of these different and emerging technologies are not taught in teacher preparation programs. Teachers often adopt these technologies independently with little institutional support or clear understanding of how to enhance the learning of the student. The cumulative goal of the presentation is to identify through the current literature which instructional models work well in a technology-enhanced classroom environment.
             This presentation examined current literature for some of the more effective instructional models that can be used to maximize student learning in today's technology based classrooms. Some of the more prominent are direct instruction, cooperative learning, discussion, and behavior modification. This presentation compared these models with current research identifying the most effective styles to be used in concert with new classroom technologies.
             The examination included how to specifically adapt the use of these theoretical instructional models into the current classroom. Included within the structure of technologically-enhanced instruction were the most modern metacognition techniques including note taking, active learning, listening, and learning styles. Each appropriate model was explained, giving examples and providing handouts for distribution to the participants.

THE EFFECTS OF POSITIVE DISCIPLINE TECHNIQUES AS THEY RELATE TO TRANSITION TIMES IN THE MIDDLE SCHOOL CLASSROOM

Patrick N. Kariuki and Ruth C. Davis, Milligan College

             The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of positive discipline techniques as they relate to classroom transitions in the middle-school classroom. The sample for the study consisted of four language arts classes with a total of 113 eight-grade students from a school system in northeast Tennessee. The students were randomly assigned to each class. Of these students, 100 were Caucasian, and 13 were African Americans. Fourteen of the students were learning disabled, and eleven were gifted.
             Data were collected by establishing transition times before and after positive discipline was implemented. The teacher timed the students when they transitioned from one activity to another before and after positive discipline techniques were implemented. Data were analyzed using a paired sample t-test and Pearson's product moment correlation. The results indicated a significant difference in transition times before and after positive discipline, and a significant negative relationship between the use of positive discipline and the time it takes the students to transit from one task to the next. The findings of the study suggested that students in the middle school classrooms would benefit from positive discipline techniques.

THE USE OF INTERTEXTUALITY IN EXAMINING THE ROLE OF A CORE- KNOWLEDGE-BASED CURRICULUM IN THE DAY-TO-DAY TEACHING OF AN EIGHTH-GRADE MATHEMATICS TEACHER

Nora W. Shuart-Faris, Vanderbilt University

             The purpose of this study was to investigate the ways in which a new systemwide core-knowledge-based curriculum impacted the day-to-day classroom life of an eighth-grade teacher. Specifically, the questions that guided this study were: (1) How did the implementation of the new heavily structured curriculum impact the teacher's day-to-day teaching? and (2) How did the new curriculum influence the ways in which the teacher taught in previous years?
             The ethnographic study was conducted over a seven-month period (November to May) during the 1998-1999 school year in one eighth-grade mathematics classroom. The classroom was located in a racially-mixed (Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic), Title 1 school in a large metropolitan school district. The participating teacher was a 27-year veteran teacher who taught both mathematics and language arts. Data collection consisted of field notes from three visits per week to back-to-back, 50-minute class periods, video-recorded classroom lessons, audio-recorded interviews with the teacher and groups of students, and textual artifacts from the classroom, the school, and the school district. A micro-level discourse analysis was conducted to determine the process of intertextuality, specifically, how texts (from many sources) were used to indicate a teaching ideology.
             Initial findings from this study indicated that while the new curriculum was used in the classroom, the ways in which it was used were different from the apparent intentions of the creators of the curriculum. That is, in this classroom the new curriculum had an impact on when something was taught; however, the teacher's use of the new curriculum was much more as a testing and record-keeping device than as a new way of thinking about teaching mathematics. Instead, the teacher continued to teach in the way that she thought was most effective and more student-centered.